Phytoestrogenic Potential of Linum usitatissimum (Flaxseed): Pharmacological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives
Abstract
Linum usitatissimum Linn. (flaxseed; Tukhm-e-Katan) is an important medicinal and nutraceutical plant widely described in both classical Unani literature and contemporary biomedical research. Classical Unani physicians, including Ibn Sina and Zakariya al-Razi, documented its therapeutic utility in inflammatory disorders, respiratory ailments, and female reproductive conditions. In Unani medicine, Tukhm-e-Katan is recognized for its nutritive, demulcent, anti-inflammatory, and restorative properties, contributing to the maintenance of humoral balance. Phytochemical investigations have identified flaxseed as a rich source of lignans, particularly secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), along with α-linolenic acid, dietary fibre, proteins, mucilage, vitamins, and minerals. These bioactive constituents exhibit significant phytoestrogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Experimental and clinical studies suggest beneficial effects of flaxseed in menopausal symptoms, hormone-dependent disorders, hyperlipidemia, polycystic ovarian syndrome, osteoporosis, and gastrointestinal dysfunctions. Emerging evidence also supports its role in women’s health through modulation of estrogenic pathways and oxidative stress. The present review highlights the pharmacological, nutraceutical, and phytoestrogenic potential of Linum usitatissimum while integrating evidence from modern scientific literature with traditional Unani perspectives, thereby emphasizing its therapeutic relevance in integrative and preventive medicine.
Keywords: Flaxseed, Linum usitatissimum, Phytoestrogenic activity, Menopause, Atrophic Vaginitis; Phytochemicals.
Keywords:
Flaxseed, Linum usitatissimum, Phytoestrogenic activity, Menopause, Atrophic Vaginitis, PhytochemicalDOI
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v16i8.7901References
1. Anonymous. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials and Industrial Products. Vol 6. New Delhi: Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR; 1962:119-140.
2. Hussain MS, Kaur G, Mohapatra C. Nutritional composition and functions of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum Linn.). Food Ther Health Care. 2021;3(4):88-91. https://doi.org/10.53388/TCR20210010
3. Khan ZJ, Khan NA, Naseem I, Nami SA. Therapeutics, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Tukhm-e-Katan (Linum usitatissimum L.). Int J Adv Pharm Med Bio Allied Sci. 2017; 111:1-5.
4. Soni RP, Katoch M, Kumar A, Verma P. Flaxseed-composition and its health benefits. Res Environ Life Sci. 2016;9(3):310-316.
5. Umer KH, Zeenat F, Ahmad W, Ahmad I, Khan AV. Therapeutics, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Alsi (Linum usitatissimum L.): An important Unani drug. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2017;6(5):377-383.
6. Waldschläger J, Bergemann C, Ruth W, Effmert U, Jeschke U, Richter DU, et al. Flaxseed extracts with phytoestrogenic effects on a hormone receptor-positive tumour cell line. Anticancer Res. 2005;25(3A):1817-1822.
7. Amin T, Thakur M. A comparative study on proximate composition, phytochemical screening, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Linum usitatisimum L. (flaxseeds). Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci. 2014;3(4):465-481.
8. Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, Kreiger N, Mills CA, Thompson LU. Dietary phytoestrogen intake-lignans and isoflavones-and breast cancer risk (Canada). Cancer Causes Control. 2008; 19:259-272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-007-9089-2 PMid:17992574
9. Ward WE, Yuan YV, Cheung AM, Thompson LU. Exposure to purified lignan from flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) alters bone development in female rats. Br J Nutr. 2001;86(4):499-505. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN2001429 PMid:11591237
10. Dugani A, Auzzi A, Naas F, Megwez S. Effects of the oil and mucilage from flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) on gastric lesions induced by ethanol in rats. Libyan J Med. 2008;3(4):1-5. https://doi.org/10.3402/ljm.v3i4.4787
11. Di Bonaventura M, Luo X, Moffatt M, Bushmakin AG, Kumar M, Bobula J. Association between vulvovaginal atrophy symptoms and quality of life among postmenopausal women in the United States and Western Europe. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2015;24(9):713-722. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.5177 PMid:26199981
12. Quattrocchi U. CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. Vol 5. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2012:2297.
13. Khare CP. Indian Medicinal Plants: An Illustrated Dictionary. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media; 2008:669-670. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70638-2 PMCid:PMC2705749
14. Qadry JS. Pharmacognosy. 16th ed. New Delhi, India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd; 2014:126.
15. Asgharpoor H, Hadizadeh-Talasaz F, Rahmani R, Rakhshandeh H, Rahmati Z. Effect of Citrus aurantium vaginal cream on vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women: A quasi-experimental study. Int J Community Based Nurs Midwifery. 2024;12(1):32. https://doi:10.30476/IJCBNM.2023.98670.2251
16. Khan HA, Simmler C, Yuan Y, Anderson JR, Chen SN, Nikolić D, et al. Evaluation of estrogenic activity of licorice species in comparison with hops used in botanicals for menopausal symptoms. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e67947. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067947 PMid:23874474
17. Najjarzadeh M, Charandabi SMA, Mohammadi M, Mirghafourvand M. Comparison of the effect of hyaluronic acid and estrogen on atrophic vaginitis in menopausal women: A systematic review. Post Reprod Health. 2019;25(2):100-108. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053369119830818 PMid:30798700
18. Kabiruddin M. Maghzenul Mufaridat. New Delhi, India: Idara Kitabus Shifa; 2007:75-76.
19. Ghani N. Khazinul Advia. New Delhi, India: Idara Kitabus Shifa; 2010:258-260.
20. Usmani MI. Tanqihul Mufradat. New Delhi, India: Famous Offset Press; 2008:38-40.
21. Sadeghi M, Namjouyan F, Cheraghian B, Abbaspoor Z. Impact of Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) vaginal cream on vaginal signs and symptoms of atrophy in postmenopausal women: A randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Tradit Complement Med. 2020;10(2):110-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2019.02.005 PMid:32257873 PMCid:PMC7109473
22. Hamdani SKH. Usool-e-Tibb. 1st ed. New Delhi, India: Qaumi Council Braye Farogh Urdu Zaban; 2011:46, 56-58, 450-472.
23. Qadry JS. Pharmacognosy. 16th ed. New Delhi, India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd; 2014:126.
24. Khan HA. Qanoone Asri. New Delhi, India: CCRUM; 2009:91-102.
25. Hussain MS, Kaur G, Mohapatra C. Nutritional composition and functions of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum Linn.). Food Ther Health Care. 2021;3(4):88-91. https://doi.org/10.53388/TCR20210010
26. Sina I. Al Qanoon Fit Tib. (Urdu trans. by Kantoori GH). Vol 2. New Delhi, India: Idara Kitabus Shifa; 2007:1103-1105.
27. Kabeeruddin M. Advia ki do Takseem. Hyderabad, India: Daftarul Malih Bazar Noorulmrah; YNM:96-98.
28. Tarique NA. Tajul Mufradat. New Delhi, India: Idara Kitabus Shifa; 2010:5-8.
29. Bughdadi IH. Kitabul Mukhtarat Fil Tibb. (Urdu translation) Vol 4. New Delhi, India: CCRUM; 2005:191-194, 207-211.
30. Khan MA. Al Akseer. Vol 2. New Delhi, India: Idara Kitabus Shifa; 2003:1356-1358.
31. Kopaei MR, Shakiba A, Sedighi M, Bahmani M. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Linum usitatissimum in Balb mice. J Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2017;22(4):892-896. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587217717416 PMid:28750553 PMCid:PMC5871296
32. Lateef A. Tawzihat Kulliyat Advia. 3rd ed. Aligarh, India: Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences; 2010:241.
33. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 2. New Delhi, India: Jayyed Press; 1975:409-410.
34. Khan MA. Muhite Azam. (Urdu translation) Vol 1. New Delhi, India: CCRIUM; 2013:404-406.
35. Anonymous. National Formulary of Unani Medicine. Part 2, Vol 1. New Delhi, India: CCRUM, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare; 2007:150.
36. Anonymous. The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India. Part 1, Vol 1. New Delhi, India: CCRUM, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare; 2007:50-53.
37. Nadkarni KM. Indian Materia Medica. 3rd ed. Bombay, India: Popular Prakashan Pvt Ltd; 1976:1229-1232.
38. Bernacchia R, Preti R, Vinci G. Chemical composition and health benefits of flaxseed. Austin J Nutr Food Sci. 2014;2(8):1045.
39. Thompson LU, Chen JM, Li T, Strasser-Weippl K, Goss PE. Dietary flaxseed alters tumor biological markers in postmenopausal breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2005;11(10):3828-3835. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-04-2326 PMid:15897583
Published
Abstract Display: 59 
PDF Downloads: 53 PDF Downloads: 12 How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 Yusra Qureshi , Mohd. Faizan, Ismath Shameem
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
.