Smoking of tobacco is the cause of human lung cancer
Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study is to re-evaluate the relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
Methods: In order to clarify the relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer, a review and meta-analysis of appropriate studies with a total sample size of n = 48393 was conducted. The p-value was set to p < 0,05.
Results: It was not possible to reject the null-hypothesis H0: without smoking no lung cancer. Furthermore, the null-hypothesis H0: No causal relationship between smoking and lung cancer was rejected.
Conclusions: Compared to the results from previous studies, the results of this study confirm previously published results. According the results of this study, without smoking no lung cancer. Smoking is the cause of lung cancer.
Keywords: Smoking, lung cancer, causal relationship
DOI
https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v9i1-s.2273References
Hasse KE. An Anatomical Description of the Diseases of the Organs of Circulation and Respiration, London, Sydenham Society; 1846. http://archive.org/details/ananatomicaldes02hassgoog. Accessed January 25, 2019.
Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, et al. Estimating the global cancer incidence and mortality in 2018: GLOBOCAN sources and methods, Int J Cancer, December 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.31937
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries, CA Cancer J Clin, 2018; 68(6):394-424. doi: https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492
Sant M, Allemani C, Santaquilani M, Knijn A, Marchesi F, Capocaccia R. EUROCARE-4. Survival of cancer patients diagnosed in 1995–1999. Results and commentary, Eur J Cancer, 2009; 45(6):931-991. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2008.11.018
Thun MJ. Early landmark studies of smoking and lung cancer, Lancet Oncol, 2010; 11(12):1200. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70401-2
Müller FH. Tabakmißbrauch und Lungencarcinom, Z Für Krebsforsch, 1940; 49(1):57-85. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01633114
Morabia A. Quality, originality, and significance of the 1939 “Tobacco consumption and lung carcinoma” article by Mueller, including translation of a section of the paper, Prev Med, 2012; 55(3):171-177. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.05.008
Parsons A, Daley A, Begh R, Aveyard P. Influence of smoking cessation after diagnosis of early stage lung cancer on prognosis: systematic review of observational studies with meta-analysis, BMJ, 2010; 340(jan21 1):b5569-b5569. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b5569
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement, Open Med Peer-Rev Indep Open-Access J, 2009; 3(3):123-130.
Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration, PLoS Med, 2009; 6(7):1000100. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100
Doll R, Hill AB. Study of the Aetiology of Carcinoma of the Lung, Br Med J, 1952; 2(4797):1271-1286. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2022425/. Accessed January 22, 2019.
Lombard HL. An epidemiological study in lung cancer, Cancer, 1965; 18(10):1301-1309.
Wynder EL, Stellman SD. Impact of long-term filter cigarette usage on lung and larynx cancer risk: a case-control study, J Natl Cancer Inst, 1979; 62(3):471-477.
Benhamou S, Benhamou E, Tirmarche M, Flamant R. Lung cancer and use of cigarettes: a French case-control study, J Natl Cancer Inst, 1985; 74(6):1169-1175.
Harris RE, Zang EA, Anderson JI, Wynder EL. Race and Sex Differences in Lung Cancer Risk Associated with Cigarette Smoking, Int J Epidemiol, 1993; 22(4):592-599. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/22.4.592
Pershagen G, Akerblom G, Axelson O, et al. Residential radon exposure and lung cancer in Sweden, N Engl J Med, 1994; 330(3):159-164. doi: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199401203300302
Sobue T, Suzuki T, Fujimoto I, et al. Case-control study for lung cancer and cigarette smoking in Osaka, Japan: comparison with the results from Western Europe, Jpn J Cancer Res Gann, 1994; 85(5):464-473.
Jöckel KH, Ahrens W, Jahn I, Pohlabeln H, Bolm-Audorff U. Occupational risk factors for lung cancer: a case-control study in West Germany, Int J Epidemiol, 1998; 27(4):549-560.
Kreuzer M, Kreienbrock L, Gerken M, et al. Risk factors for lung cancer in young adults, Am J Epidemiol, 1998; 147(11):1028-1037.
Boffetta P, Pershagen G, Jockel K-H, et al. Cigar and Pipe Smoking and Lung Cancer Risk: a Multicenter Study From Europe, JNCI J Natl Cancer Inst, 1999; 91(8):697-701. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/91.8.697
Moivre A de [1667-1754]. The Doctrine of Chances or a Method of Calculating the Probability of Events in Play, London: printed by W. Pearson for the author; 1718. doi: https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-10420
Kolmogoroff A. Grundbegriffe Der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1933. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-49888-6
Barukčić I. Die Kausalität, 1. Aufl. Hamburg: Wiss.-Verl.; 1989.
Barukčić I. The Mathematical Formula of the Causal Relationship k, Int J Appl Phys Math, 2016; 6(2):45-65. doi: https://doi.org/10.17706/ijapm.2016.6.2.45-65
Barukčić I. Theoriae Causalitatis Principia Mathematica, Norderstedt: Books on Demand; 2017.
Barukčić I. Helicobacter Pylori is the Cause of Gastric Cancer, Mod Health Sci, 2018; 1(1):43-50. doi: https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n1p43
Barukčić I. Human Papillomavirus—The Cause of Human Cervical Cancer, J Biosci Med, 2018d; 06(04):106-125. doi: https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2018.64009
Barukčić I. Human Cytomegalovirus is the Cause of Glioblastoma Multiforme, Mod Health Sci, 2018; 1(2):19. doi: https://doi.org/10.30560/mhs.v1n2p19
Barukčić I. The Equivalence of Time and Gravitational Field, Phys Procedia, 2011; 22:56-62. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2011.11.008
Barukčić I. Epstein-barr virus is the cause of multiple sclerosis, Int J Curr Med Pharm Res, 2018; 4(9 (A)):3674-3682. doi: https://doi.org/10.24327/23956429.ijcmpr20180538
Barukčić K, Barukčić JP, Barukčić I. Epstein-Barr virus is the cause of rheumatoid arthritis, Romanian J Rheumatol, 2018; 27(4):148-163. https://view.publitas.com/amph/rjr_2018_4_art-02/page/1. Accessed December 29, 2018.
Wertheimer R. Conditions, J Philos, 1968; 65:355–364. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2023797.
Gomes G. Are Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Converse Relations, Australas J Philos, 2009; 87:375–387. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00048400802587325
Fisher RA. On the Interpretation of χ 2 from Contingency Tables, and the Calculation of P, J R Stat Soc, 1922; 85(1):87. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2340521
Yates F. Contingency Tables Involving Small Numbers and the χ 2 Test, J R Stat Soc Suppl, 1934; 1(2):217. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2983604
Grizzle JE. Continuity Correction in the χ 2 -Test for 2 × 2 Tables, Am Stat, 1967; 21(4):28. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2682103
Conover WJ. Some Reasons for Not Using the Yates Continuity Correction on 2×2 Contingency Tables, J Am Stat Assoc, 1974; 69(346):374-376. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1974.10482957
Pearson K. X. On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling, Lond Edinb Dublin Philos Mag J Sci, 1900; 50(302):157-175.
Rumke CL. Implications of the Statement: No Side Effects Were Observed, N Engl J Med, 1975; 292(7):372-373.
Louis TA. Confidence Intervals for a Binomial Parameter after Observing No Successes, Am Stat, 1981; 35(3):154-154.
Hanley JA. If Nothing Goes Wrong, Is Everything All Right?, JAMA, 1983; 249(13):1743.
Jovanovic BD, Levy PS. A Look at the Rule of Three, Am Stat, 1997; 51(2):137-139.
Isserlis L. On the Value of a Mean as Calculated from a Sample, J R Stat Soc, 1918; 81(1):75. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2340569
Fisher RA. The Logic of Inductive Inference, J R Stat Soc, 1935; 98(1):39. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2342435
Cornfield J. A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data; applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix, J Natl Cancer Inst, 1951; 11(6):1269-1275.
Edwards AWF. The Measure of Association in a 2 × 2 Table, J R Stat Soc Ser Gen, 1963; 126(1):109. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2982448
Mosteller F. Association and Estimation in Contingency Tables, J Am Stat Assoc, 1968; 63(321):1. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2283825
Pearson K, Heron D. On Theories of Association, Biometrika, 1913; 9(1-2):159-315. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/9.1-2.159
Altman DG. Practical Statistics for Medical Research, Boca Raton, Fla: Chapman & Hall/CRC; 1999.
Sachs L. Angewandte Statistik, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1992.
Taylor R, Cumming R, Woodward A, Black M. Passive smoking and lung cancer: a cumulative meta-analysis, Aust N Z J Public Health, 2001; 25(3):203-211.
Sheng L, Tu J-W, Tian J-H, Chen H-J, Pan C-L, Zhou R-Z. A meta-analysis of the relationship between environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer risk of nonsmoker in China, Medicine (Baltimore), 2018; 97(28):e11389. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000011389
Kim A-S, Ko H-J, Kwon J-H, Lee J-M. Exposure to Secondhand Smoke and Risk of Cancer in Never Smokers: A Meta-Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies, Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2018; 15(9):1981. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091981
Published
Abstract Display: 1907 
PDF Downloads: 1123 How to Cite
Issue
Section
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
.