Available online on 15.10.2026 at http://jddtonline.info

Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

Copyright  © 2026 The  Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original author and source are credited

Open Access  Full Text Article                                                                                                Review Article

Assessment parameters of Mizāj (Temperament) of Humans in Unani Medicine: A review

Khadija Abdul Hafiz¹*, Ghulamuddin Sofi², Kaleem Ahmad³, Bushera Shaikh¹

¹ Research Scholar, Department of Ilmul Advia (Unani Pharmacology), National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

² Prof. & HOD, Department of Ilmul Advia (Unani Pharmacology), National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

³ Assistant prof. Department of Moalajat (Medicine), National Institute of Unani Medicine, Ghaziabad, UP, India.

1. Introduction

Mizāj has been an inseparable part of Unani Medicine (UM). It literally means intermixing. Allama Nafees stated that “When elements mix, then they act and react, leading to the development of a new moderate quality in between them, which is known as Mizāj”.¹ According to Unani scholars like Ibn Sina and Galen, the human body is composed of four types of Akhlāṭ (humours) viz. Dam (blood), Balgham (phlegm), Ṣafrā (yellow bile), and Sawdā (black bile). These are governed by four qualities like Ḥārr (hot), Bārid (cold), Raṭb (moist), and Yābis (dry). When all Akhlāṭ are in normal concentration by means of their quality and quantity leads to normal physiological functions of the organs. This state of the body is considered as Normal Mizāj, while the above abnormal concentration is stated as Sū’-i-Mizāj (pathological temperament).^2,3,4

Mizāj is categorized into Mizāj Mufrad (simple), viz., Ḥārr, Bārid, Raṭb, and Yābis, and Mizāj Murakkab (compound), viz., Ḥārr Yābis, Ḥārr Raṭb, Bārid Yābis, and Bārid Raṭb. The human body has organ-specific Mizāj and generalized Mizāj. Mizāj Mu‘tadil of humans is altered due to various factors, including age, occupation, place of residence, food habits, seasons, and after administration of drugs.^2,3 Ajnās ‘Ashara are the Unani parameters that utilized in the assessment of normal Mizāj of Human body viz., Malmas (touch), Aḍala (Muscles) and Laḥm-w-Shaḥm (Fat), Badani Sha‘r (Body Hair), Lawn al-Badan  (Body Complexion), Ha‘iyyat -al- A‘da’ (Physique), Kayfiyat Infi‘al (Responsiveness of organs), Nawm-o-Yaqza (Sleep and Wakefulness), Af‘al- al- A‘da’ (State of function), Fuzlat-al-badan (Excreta of the body), and Infi‘alat Nafsaniyya (Psychic reactions). These determinants are related to the morphological, physiological, and psychological conditions of the human body.^1,3,4,5,6,7

Different clinical signs and symptoms of altered Mizāj are also explained in the classical literature of Unani Medicine. The researcher used this observation for the assessment of Sū’-i-Mizāj (abnormal Mizāj) of the human body in healthy and diseased states. This review explains the classical concept of Ajnās ‘Ashara for the assessment of Mizāj Mu‘tadil and clinical features of Mizāj Ghayr Mu ‘tadil.^{1,2,7,8,9,10,}

2. Methodology

A bibliographic survey was carried out to collect the available information on Ajnās ‘Ashara and determinants of abnormal Mizāj. Classical books (Urdu translation) were used to gather information, viz., Al-Qanoon-Fil-Tib, Kulliyat Qanoon, Kamilus sana, Zakhira Khwarzam Shahi, Firdaus-ul-Hikmat, Kitab-Al-Mansoori, Kitab-A1-Kulliyat, and Kulliyat-e-Nafisi.^{1,3,7,8,11,12,13,14} “Standard Unani Medical Terminology,” published by CCRUM, has also been used to describe accurate Unani terminologies.¹⁵

3. Result and Discussion

The Ajnās ‘Ashara are the ten determinants that are universally applied in the assessment of normal human Mizāj in Unani Medicine.

Malmas (Touch):

Touch holds the primary position among all determinants due to its greater power compared to others.¹ When a physician with a balanced temperament perceives the sensation of another body in a moderate climate. It is the perception characterized by neither extreme heat nor cold; then it should be regarded as an indication of a normal Mizāj. There are two conditions to be considered during assessment of normal Mizāj. In the first condition, the examiner does not possess Mizāj Motadil but is capable of identifying it. In the second condition, the investigator has a normal Mizāj and can also identify it.^1,3,7,9 The parameters of Malmas encompass the thermal properties (hotness and coldness) and the tactile qualities (softness and hardness) of the skin. It also includes the tactile characteristics of nails, viz., softness, roughness, and dryness, but excludes any external influences such as nail trauma.⁸

Hakeem Qutbuddin stated that dryness and moistness are non-perceptible qualitative states known as Kayfiyat Infi‘ala Ghayr Mahsusa. Therefore, the criteria for their evaluation are the softness and hardness of the body in an individual who is neutral in terms of heat (Hararat) and coldness (Burudat). Excessive heat can alter the physical properties of materials by transforming roughness or hardness into softness through the liquefaction of body fluids, it can convert softness into hardness by drying or destroying these fluids. Excessive coldness can lead to the coagulation or solidification of body fluids, resulting in the transformation of softness into hardness, e.g., Salaj (ice) or fat, or contributes to softness by generating Rutubat Ghariba as a result of incomplete digestion.^3,7,9 According to Jamhoor Atibba, moistness and dryness are considered Kayfiyat malmusa, as moistness influences dryness and vice versa. However, this type of Rutubat and Yubusat cannot be directly assessed; therefore, they are evaluated by examining softness and hardness.^3,7 If a physician perceives an individual's skin as unusually cold, hot, soft, hard, or coarse, without the influence of external factors such as air or water baths, it indicates that the individual possesses an abnormal temperament corresponding to the intensity perceived by the observer.^7,9 The softness of the skin is indicative of a cold temperament due to the substantial presence of Kham Khilt (Khilt Fijj). Hot skin is associated with a hot temperament, whereas cold skin is observed in individuals with a cold temperament, in contrast to Mizāj Mu‘tadil. The presence of soft and smooth skin signifies a moist Mizāj, whereas rough and dry skin indicates a dry Mizāj. The intensity of body heat can vary, being mild like vapor in the case of children, or intense like a flame in the case of adults.^3,7,8 The presence of warm and soft skin is associated with a hot and dry temperament. Cold and soft skin is indicative of a cold and moist temperament, whereas cold and rough skin suggests a cold and dry temperament.

Lahm / Surkh ghosht /Lahm ahmar w shahm (Muscles and fat):

The " Laḥm Surkh " (flesh), " ‘Adalat," or "Surkh ghosht" are indicative of a Ḥārr Mizāj due to their Hararat. Dasumat Khoon or Juz mukawwin is transformed into Hararat Ghariziyya (Hararat asliya), whereas fat signifies coldness and adheres to the membrane, indicating a Bārid Mizāj.^3,7 If an excess of both fat and flesh is present, it indicates a Raṭb Mizāj, yet it remains Mu‘tadil in terms of Hararat and Burudat. Conversely, a lesser amount signifies a Yābis Mizāj. In the context of Mizāj, a "soft body" is characterized by Ḥārr and Raṭb qualities, whereas a "hard body" is defined by Barid and Yabis attributes.^1,3,7,8,9 According to Ibn-e-Sina, well-developed musculature accompanied by a certain amount of fat and oil indicates a moist and hot temperament, resulting in a body that is hard (strong).^1,3,7 The limited muscular development and lack of fat indicate a Yābis Mizāj.^3,7,9

Oiliness and fat consistently indicate a Bārid and Raṭb Mizāj, resulting in a loose or relaxed body condition (Tarahal). In the presence of a soft or loose body, vessels may become constricted.^1,3,7,9 If the quantity of fat and oil is minimal, the Mizāj is considered Ḥārr due to the ‘Illat Maddi of fat and oil being Dasumat Khoon (cholesterol), while the ‘Illat Fa’aeli is Burudat. The presence of fat is less pronounced in the liver due to its Ḥārr Mizāj, whereas it is more abundant in the intestine, which has a Bārid Mizāj. However, despite the heart's Ḥārr Mizāj, fat is more prevalent there because the heart requires additional energy for its continuous activity. The persistent action of the heart diminishes its potency, and to replenish or enhance this potency, Tabi‘at directs fat towards the heart.^3,7,9 The composition of flesh involves Juz Mukawwin (Khoon  Ghaliz) and Juz musakhkhin (Lati’f khoon). It is established that blood is more Raṭb compared to other humors, resulting in the Mizāj of flesh being moist. The Sabab fa’eli of flesh is Hararat, which facilitates the dissolution of the liquid component of blood, thereby transforming it into Ghaliz, or flesh.^1,7,9 The degree of lethargy is greater in individuals with a Bārid Yābis Mizaj compared to those with a Ḥārr Yābis Mizaj. This is followed by individuals with a Yābis Mizāj, then those with a Mu‘tadil Mizāj in terms of Hararat and Burudat, and finally, those with a Ḥārr Mizāj and Mu‘tadil in terms of Rutubat and Yubusat.^7,9 

Sha‘r (Hairs of the body):

In Unani Medicine, several parameters about hair are delineated: the growth rate, which may be rapid or slow; the color, which can be blackish, white, brown, or black; the texture, categorized as curly, straight, or lustrous; the distribution, described as profuse, average, or scanty; and the density, which is either dense or sparse. Hair is generated through Bukharat dukhaniya, where Dukhan consists of Ajza ardiyya and Ajza Nariyya. In contrast, Bukhar or Bhap is a combination of Ajza ma’iyya and Ajza hawaiyya. The body's heat consistently releases Bukharat Dukhaniyya from Akhlāṭ, which then migrates towards the medium-diameter pores of the skin. Upon reaching the skin, it is deposited and subsequently transformed into hair. This process persists throughout an individual's lifetime. A sufficient quantity of blood, its viscous consistency, a warm temperament, and a medium diameter of pores are essential for complete production of hair. An adequate quantity of blood generates a substantial amount of Dukhan, which is necessary for hair production. In instances of anemia, hair growth is reduced. Viscosity or high consistency of blood is essential for hair production, as it generates viscous Dukhan with a reduced amount of Azja ma’ayi. This composition facilitates adherence of Dukhan to skin pores. In contrast, blood with a watery consistency produces Dukhan containing a higher water content, which is unsuitable for adherence. For instance, children typically have less hair due to this factor.^1,7

The delayed or absent growth, in the absence of factors such as low hemoglobin, suggests Raṭb Mizāj, whereas early growth indicates Yābis Mizāj.^7,9 The rapid growth is attributable to excessive heat, referred to as Bukharat (hot and dry), while the presence of thick hair is due to excessive Dukhan (Ghaliz / heavy).^1,3,7,9 In children, an excess of Bukhari mawad (light / Latif) is present, resulting in their hair being thin. In individuals with a Bārid and Raṭb Mizāj, growth is delayed and slow. This is attributed to the reduced production of Bukhari mawad, which, along with Rutubat, closes the skin's pores. Consequently, the connection between the Bukharat that exits the body and those produced within is disrupted. In individuals with a Yābis Mizāj, hair growth may be inhibited. This condition arises when moisture evaporates from the skin's pores, leaving them open due to dryness. For instance, baldness frequently occurs in old age, or Sin-e-shaikhukhat, as a result of a Yābis Mizāj. Additionally, baldness often initiates at the anterior fontanel, or Yafukh /Taloo / chindiya, as it is the driest area.⁸ The dark black color of hair indicates heat and dryness^7,8,9 because the Sabab Maddi / Dukhan of hair is black.^1,7 While vivacious color is due to Burudat. Reddish yellow is due to Mizāj Mu‘tadil, while white color denotes Bārid and Raṭb Mizāj, e.g., an old-age person. White color may also indicate excessive dryness; for example, the body color becomes white after Amrad Mujaffifa or during the convalescence period. Jaudat (curly) hair suggests a hot and dry temperament, such as burned hair,^7,8,9 or due to irregular pores of the skin or scalp,^7,9 or excessive heat and dryness causing an excessive adherence of earthy matter.¹ Cold and moist temperament has straight, fine, and scanty hair.⁸ While a cold and dry temperament results in curly, fine, and scanty hair, a hot and moist temperament leads to straight and smooth hair. A person with a cold and moist temperament has a red color due to the weakness of Hararat mudakhkhina, the watery consistency of blood, and the excessive production of phlegm (a combination of the color of white phlegm and black Dukhan).^1,7

Aristotle explains that the cause of white hair is the conversion of the matter responsible for hair production into a phlegmatic color. According to Galen, Brudat is the cause because the coldness slows the absorption of food or nutrition, and during this absorption, some changes occur in the nutrition, resulting in the production of a fungus-like structure.^7,9 Majoosi said that hair is produced by phlegmatic Bukhar and has a white color.⁸

Different ages, regions of the world, and environmental conditions also cause variations in hair color. For example, Africans typically do not have yellowish-red hair due to the hot climate, while Saqaliya people do not have black hair; they have white hair due to the cold climate.^1,7,8,9 A person from the south has blackish hair similar to that of an adult, while people from the north have brownish hair like children. A person with a hot temperament has dense, strong, or thick black hair, as well as early growth of a beard and hair on the lower abdomen.⁸

Lawn al-Badan (Body Complexion):

Tabri states that the real cause of body color is the dominance of a particular humor (Khilt) and its diversion towards the skin during the formation of the embryo. If Safra is dominant, the body color is yellowish; black indicates the dominance of Sauda; red suggests the dominance of Dam; and white signifies the dominance of Balgham.”

The white color of the body indicates Burudat because food is converted into phlegm after metabolism^3,8 and a deficiency of blood,⁷ while a yellowish color of the body indicates Hararat. The yellow color is primarily due to Safra or a deficiency of blood, such as the yellow color of Naqeheen.^1,7,9 Redness of the body is a symptom of heat because Hararat metabolizes food into blood, and muscle is produced by blood.⁸ It liquefies the blood and moves towards the skin, or there is an excess amount of blood.^7,9 Reddish-white color denotes Mu‘tadil Mizāj because Mu‘tadil blood mixes with the white color of the skin.¹ A bluish body indicates Burudat due to reduced blood production or Bārid Khilt / Sawdā. In contrast, a whitish body is a symptom of heat. The lime-like whitish blue and ivory colors of the body indicate coldness and phlegm. If the color of the body is greenish-blue or Brinjal color, it indicates coldness and dryness.^7,9

A whitish or yellowish color indicates Ḥārr Mizāj, which is due to an excess of bile and low hemoglobin. Heat causes the matter to boil and convert into bile. In cases of low hemoglobin, the body color becomes yellow, similar to how adding water to red wine turns its color yellow. In cases of excess bile, symptoms of heat and brightness are present, whereas in cases of low Hb, there are no symptoms of heat. Black color without brightness indicates excessive cold and black bile. Coldness reduces the amount of blood and also coagulates or solidifies it, turning the color black.¹

Pathology developed in different organs of the body is the cause of different body colors. In the case of liver disease, the body color becomes yellow or whitish. For spleen disease, the color would be yellowish or blackish, and in the case of piles, the color would be yellowish or greenish. The color of the tongue is an excellent guide to the temperament of the stomach, intestines, and veins of the body. Eye color serves as a reliable indicator of brain temperament. One thing to always keep in mind is that climate and zones affect skin and hair color, so one should not expect a Negro to have fair skin color. In certain diseases, such as jaundice, it is possible for two organs of the body to exhibit different colors, for instance, a white tongue and a blackish face.^7,9

Ha‘iyyat -al- A‘da’ (Physique):

Broader chest, prominent veins and joints, well-developed muscles, rapid and strong pulse, larger extremities, and height are all indicative of Ḥārr Mizāj. Narrow and small chest, shorter extremities, slow and weak pulse, hidden joints and veins, shorter stature, and excessive fat deposition are signs of Bārid Mizāj because normal growth of the body is incomplete due to Burudat. Rough and dry skin, prominent joints, a larynx, and a straight nose are features of a Yābis Mizāj person.^3,7,9

Hararat is the tool for the physiology of Al-Tabi‘a al Mudabbira li’l Badan. If excessive heat is present, then Tabi‘at performs its actions quickly and completely, especially by expanding the thoracic cavity. This is because the heart, which requires more space for oxygen absorption, lies in this cavity. Another reason for the broader chest is that, due to heat, all the organs absorb more nutrients, leading to faster body growth. Additionally, the production of Rooh increases with heat, which in turn requires more space. Pulse Azeem is caused by excess heat, which leads to the widening of blood vessels and the need for the absorption of cold air. In cases of larger extremities, Hararat spreads matter more towards the extremities. Joints play a crucial role in movement, which generates heat. This heat helps absorb excess matter and nutrition, leading to the dominance of joints. Additionally, with an adequate amount of Hararat Ghariziyya, the body's nourishment improves, further highlighting the importance of joints.^1,7,9

Kayfiyat Infi‘al (Responsiveness of organs):

The quality of a reaction is determined by how quickly or slowly the body is affected by the states of Hararat, Burudat, Rutubat, or Yubusat. The body's quickness in reacting to a certain state indicates the prevalence of that state within the body. Applying heat or cold to one body at two different times and observing its reactions: if there is a quick reaction to heat, then the Mizāj would be considered hot, and vice versa.^1,3,7,9

Nawm-o-Yaqza (Sleep and Wakefulness):

Balanced sleep and wakefulness indicate an equable temperament, particularly of the brain. Excessive sleep is evidence of Rutubat and Burudat, as these conditions cause the nerves to become loose and obstruct the passage of Ru’h, or the Ru’h becomes Ghaliz and unable to reach the nerves, or the movement of Rooh slows down. Excessive wakefulness is responsible for increased Hararat and Yubusat, indicating a Ḥārr and Yābis temperament, especially in the brain. Heat and dryness cause agitation, infuriation, and lightness of Ru’h, causing the Ru’h to move outward. Individuals with fatty and phlegmatic bodies tend to sleep more, while those with a bilious temperament sleep less. Assessing sleep and wakefulness aids in understanding the central nervous system and its temperamental state. ^1,3,7,9 

Af‘al- al- A‘da’ (Functions of organs):

Normal functions refer to all actions that occur as required by physiology, whether they are physical, psychic, or animal actions.^1,8 Ḥārr Mizāj individuals are intellectual, talkative, hyperactive, and engage in excessive physical activity as a psychic action, which is the opposite of Burudat.

In terms of animal action, Ḥārr Mizāj individuals are brave, courageous, and strenuous, with an ‘Azim Sari‘Mutawatir pulse, and they experience severe and frequent anger. In contrast, cold individuals are weak, cowardly, and fearful, experience infrequent anger, and have a slow and Mutafawit pulse. Regarding physical action or Af‘al Tabi‘i, Ḥārr Mizāj individuals exhibit fast body growth, strong digestion, good reproduction, hypersensitivity, and a frequent desire to bathe.⁸

Perfection of somatic functions is evidence of a balanced temperament, which depends on the complete health of the body. Their being defective or abolished denotes different degrees of excessive cold temperament.¹ Persons of Ḥārr Mizāj have rapid physiological activities such as growth of body, fast growth of hair; tooth eruption, strong voice, talkative nature, blinking of eye, and their movements are excessive and strong. Sometimes the cause of excess body function is Burudat, e.g., excessive sleep/hypersomnia. The cold temperament people have weak & slow functions; sometimes weakness or loss of body function is due to excessive Hararat (excessive Hararat weakens the potency of the body) if it is associated with irregular/excess body function (Tashweesh Af‘al), e.g., insomnia or disturbed sleep.

Sleep is not a part of normal body function, but it is necessary for health because of sleep, the Rooh gets relaxation, and it is totally concentrated on the digestion of food.^7,9 Excess heat initially affects the body's potency, weakening it, and subsequently reducing or impairing the function of the body or organs. In contrast, cold prevents the complete action of the body or organs without affecting their potency.¹ Functions and actions that accelerate beyond physiological limits become indicative of the Ḥārr Mizāj of the organ.^1,3,7,9

Fuzlat-al-badan (Excreta of the body):

The body's excreta are tools used in diagnosing the Mizāj of the human body in both healthy and diseased states. The excreta include urine, feces, sweat, and nasal discharge, among others. Their color, consistency, viscosity, odor, taste, and maturity are considered. An acrid and strong or bad smell (when Tabi‘at leaves the waste product as it is, Hararat ghareeba acts on it, converting it into morbid matter and evaporating its light constituents, which Quwwat shamma detects) and a deep color of excreta, such as red or yellow, along with proper maturity, indicate that the person is Ḥārr. ^1,7,9 

In contrast, less smell and a dull color indicate Burudat, as it prevents the evaporation of light constituents by solidifying or reducing the production of bile and blood. Similarly, excessive sweating is also due to increased body metabolic rates, which signifies the Hararat of a person.^1,7

Infi‘alat Nafsaniyya (Psychic reactions):

The signs of heat in the body or a specific organ related to psychological reactions, such as the heart (circulation), include the intensity of anger (Sabab muid is an excess amount of blood with Mu‘tadil consistency and Ḥārr Mizāj, which is easily Mushtail and moves towards extremities), depth of sadness and sorrow, talkativeness, acuteness of perception and memory, lack of scruples, over-trust, optimism, callousness, vigilance, manliness, and active habits. A cold temperament is characterized by the opposite of these qualities, such as fear (Sabab muid is blood with a liquid consistency, but Bārid Mizāj, which can't move easily). Persistence of joy, anger, and good memory indicate Yubusat (dryness stores things), while forgetfulness is a sign of excessive Rutubat.^1,7,9

Assessment parameters for different types of Sū’-i-Mizāj. These are explained in the classical Unani literature. These varieties of Sū’-i-Mizāj cause different signs and symptoms, known as Alamate Sū’-i-Mizāj (Determinants of altered temperament). Descriptions of the signs and symptoms of different altered temperaments are mentioned in tables 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07, and 08 from various classical books.

Table 01: Description of signs and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Bārid Yābis^{,3,7,8,10,12,16}

+ means present, - means absent

Table 02: Description of signs and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Bārid Raṭb ^3,7,14

+ means present, - means absent

Table 03: Description of signs and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Ḥārr Yābis^,7,14   

+ means present, - means absent

Table 04: Description of sign and symptoms Sū’-i-Mizāj Ḥārr Raṭb^,7,14   

Table 05: Description of sign and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Bārid (cold)^7,12,16

+ means present, - means absent

Table 06: Description of sign and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Yābis (Dryness)^7,16

+ means present, - means absent

Table 07: Description of sign and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Ḥārr (heat) ^7,12,16

+ means present, - means absent

Table 08: Description of sign and symptoms of Sū’-i-Mizāj Raṭb (Moisture) ^7,12,16

+ present, - absent

4. Conclusion

In Unani Medicine, Mizāj (temperament) of individual organs and the body as a whole is considered essential for maintaining physiological functions and the sustenance of healthy human life. Ajnās-e-Ashara represents the different categories of normal Mizāj, whereas Sū’-i-Mizāj denotes pathological alterations that may impair organ or systemic functions. Assessment of Mizāj contributes to diagnosis, selection of therapeutic principles and treatment modalities, and individualized drug selection. Its evaluation integrates classical concepts, sensory and clinical assessment, humoral changes, pharmacodynamic properties, and, where appropriate, modern scientific techniques. These assessment parameters require systematic validation through well-designed clinical and human volunteer studies to establish their reliability, validity, and clinical applicability.

Conflict of interest  None

Acknowledgment The authors express their sincere gratitude to the departmental faculty, students, and library staff for their invaluable support during the review of this article.

Funding Sources This study was conducted without the support of specific grants from public, commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.

References

1. Nafis B. Kulliyat-e-Nafisi (Urdu translation by Kabiruddin M). New Delhi: Idara Kitab-ul-Shifa; 1934.
2. Ahmad SI. Al-Umoor Al-Tabiyah. 1st ed. New Delhi: Saini Printers; 1980.
3. Sina I. Al Qanoon fil Tibb. (English translation of the critical Arabic Text). New Delhi: Jamia Hamdard; 1993.
4. Sina I. Al Qanoon Fil Tibb (Urdu Translation by Ghulam Husain Kantoori). New Delhi: Idara Kitab-ul-Shifa; 2011.
5. Ahmed SI. Kulliyate Asri. New Delhi: Public Press; 1983.
6. Zaidi IH, Zulkifle M. Temperamentology: A Scientific Appraisal of Human Temperament. 1st ed. Aligarh: Competent Xerox Centre; 1999.
7. Ibn Sina AAH. Kulliyat-e-Qanoon. Urdu translation and commentary by Kabiruddin HM. New Delhi: Aijaz Publishing House; 2006.
8. Majusi AIA. Kamilus Sana (Urdu Translation by Ghulam Husain Kantoori). New Delhi: Idara Kitab-ul-Shifa; 2010
9. Kabiruddin M. Tarjuma wa Sharah Kulliyat-e Qanoon Part-I. Karol Bagh, Delhi: Maktaba Daftarul Masih; 1930
10. Arzani MA. Mufarrih al-Qulub. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine; 2010.
11. Jurjani AH. Zakhira Khwarizm Shahi. Vol. I. Urdu translation by Hadi Hasan Khan. Lucknow: Matba Nami Nawal Kishore; 1902.
12. Tabri AR, Ali bin Sahal. Firdaus-ul-Hikmat. Urdu translation by Mohd. Adl Shah Sambhali. Deoband: Faisal Publications; 2002.
13. Razi AMBZ. Kitab-ul-Mansoori. Urdu translation. New Delhi: CCRUM; 1991.
14. Ibn Rushd AW. Kitabul Kulliyat. Urdu translation by CCRUM. 2nd ed. New Delhi: CCRUM; 1987.
15. Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine. Standard Unani Medical Terminology. New Delhi: CCRUM, Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India; 2012.
16. Khan HH. Ilaj-ul-Amraz. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM); 2005