Available online on 15.06.2026 at http://jddtonline.info

Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

Copyright  © 2026 The   Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original author and source are credited

Open Access Full Text Article   Research Article

Ethnobotanical study and safety assessment of medicinal plants from Guiriko region of Burkina Faso used for their doping properties 

Clarisse Ouédraogo ¹*, Nabéré Ouattara ^1,3, Samson Guenné ^1,2, Benjamin K. Koama ¹, Emmanuel Zongo ¹, Zacharia Kabré ¹, Eliasse Zongo ¹, Sami E. Kam ¹, Sonia M. B. M'Po ¹, Franck Le Sage Téounviel Somda ¹, Isaac Saamou Boni ¹, Hadidiatou Belem ¹, Windmi Kagambéga ¹ and Roland N.T. Meda ¹* 

¹ Laboratory of Research and Teaching in Animal Health and Biotechnology, Nazi-Boni University, Bobo-Dioulasso 01 BP 1091 Burkina Faso; 

² Laboratoire de Biochimie et Chimie Appliquées (LABIOCA), Université Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou 03 BP 7021, Burkina Faso 

³ Université Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly, BP 176 Dédougou, Burkina Faso ; 

 

 

1. INTRODUCTION

The use of medicinal plants remains an essential practice in sub-Saharan Africa, where they constitute a major therapeutic and socio-cultural resource. According to the World Health Organization, nearly 80% of rural populations still rely on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare ¹. Burkina Faso, with its remarkable biodiversity, is a privileged setting for ethnobotanical uses. Surveys conducted by several authors in the country have shown that local populations have a wealth of knowledge about plants used for therapeutic purposes ^{2, 3, 4, 5}. These medicinal plants are used not only against various diseases such as urinary tract infections, malaria, neuropsychiatric and human reproductive disorders, anti-inflammatory and bacterial diseases, etc ^{4, 5, 6, 7} In addition to using medicinal plants to treat diseases, they are also used as traditional stimulants or ‘doping agents’ to increase physical endurance and resistance to fatigue ^{8, 9}. Doping or doping practices involve taking certain substances to improve performance ¹⁰. Nowadays, the desire to excel, to persevere, to win, to be inspired, to perform well drives certain individuals (amateur footballers, competitive athletes, street vendors, musicians) or a category of the population (young people) to engage in doping practices using local resources (due to the high cost or inaccessibility of imported drugs, addiction, etc.). However, the safety of these plants remains a key issue. Some species pose health risks related to their consumption and variability in dosage, or to the presence of potentially bioactive molecules ⁸ with low therapeutic indices. The aim of the study was to compile an inventory of medicinal plants used for their doping properties in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso to assess their safety and the chemical composition of the most frequently cited species.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Study Site: 

The study was conducted in the Guiriko region, located in western Burkina Faso, specifically in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso, the country's economic capital. It is located between 11°10'59.999’ “N latitude and 4°16'59.999”' W longitude, with an area of 136.78 km² and a population of 903,887 (RGPH, 2020). The climate is South Sudanese, with average rainfall of 900.8 mm and an average temperature of 27.7°C. The vegetation is dominated by wooded savannahs and open forests with all subtypes, from wooded savannah to grassy savannah (Figure1).

 

 

                 

Figure 1: Data collection area

 

 

2.2. Ethnobotanical Data collection

The ethnobotanical survey took place between September and October 2020 in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso. It focused on traditional healers belonging to the ‘Jigi Sémè Association of Traditional Healers of Houet’. The method used was a semi-structured interview with each therapist, using a survey form. Information was collected in the local languages (Moore and Dioula). Therapists were selected based on their knowledge of plants used as doping agents. The data collected covered socio-demographic profiles, plant names, families and parts.

2.3. Collect of plant material 

The plant species were collected in the locality of Dendérésso (Bobo-Dioulasso) in October 2024. The species were previously identified and authenticated by a botanist. The plant material was washed and dried in the laboratory at room temperature and then ground into powder.

2.4. Experimental Animals

Adult male and female NMRI (Naval Medical and Research Institute) mice weighing between 31 and 42 grams (aged 8 to 10 weeks) from the animal facility at the International Centre for Research and Development on Sub-humid Zone Livestock Farming (CIRDES) in Bobo-Dioulasso were used in the study. For all tests, the mice were kept at a temperature of 25°C with alternating light and darkness every 12 hours and had free access to adequate water and food.

The study was conducted in full compliance with international guidelines for the ethical use of animals in research, including Directive 86/609/EEC of the European Community and the U.S. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (OLAW Assurance A5926-01). The authors affirm that all protocols strictly adhered to the "Principles of Laboratory Animal Care" and institutional animal welfare regulations. Efforts were made to minimize animal suffering and reduce the number of animals used without compromising scientific validity.

2.5. Preparation of plant extract 

Fifty grams (50 g) of powder from each plant species were macerated with ethanol-water (70 : 30) for 24 hours. The extract was then concentrated using a rotary evaporator, the aqueous phase was collected, frozen and freeze-dried. The extracts obtained were weighed and stored at 4°C until use.

 

2.6. Phytochemistry

2.6.1. Total Phenolic

Total phenolic content was measured according to the procedure described by Singleton et al. (1999) ¹¹ using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR). Results are expressed in mg gallic acid equivalent per 100 mg extract (mg GAE/100 mg extract).

2.6.2. Total Flavonoids

 The method used to estimate flavonoid levels in the plant extract is described by Dowd and adapted by Meda et al. (2010) ¹² using aluminum chloride reagent. The results are expressed in milligrams of quercetin equivalent (EQ) per 100 milligrams of extract (mg EQ/100 mg).

2.6.3. Condensed tannins

The condensed tannin content was determined using the method described by Agbangnan et al. (2012) ¹³ with vanillin sulphate as the reagent. The results are expressed in milligrams of tannic acid equivalent (TAE) per 100 milligrams of extract (mg TAE/100 mg).

2.7. Biological activities

The antioxidant activity and acute toxicity test of the most frequently cited species were determined.

2.7.1. Antioxidant activity determination

Three methods were used:

Method DPPH

Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method described by Velázquez et al. (2003) ¹⁴ and adapted by Meda et al. (2010) ¹². This method is based on the reduction in absorbance at 517 nm due to the DPPH free radical H● in the presence of a radical donor H● ¹⁵ Stock solutions of the extracts were prepared at a concentration of 10 mg/mL, then diluted 1:10 or 1:100 in pure methanol. Thus, 375 μL of the diluted solution was added to three (03) samples, along with 750 μL of a DPPH solution (20 mg/L), and then incubated for 15 minutes in the dark. A blank was prepared using 375 μL of the sample and 750 μL of methanol. Absorbances and concentrations were measured using a spectrophotometer at 517 nm against a standard (y=2.224×10⁻² + 0.348; R²=0.9966) obtained from ascorbic acid.

Method FRAP

The FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) method is based on the ability of compounds to reduce ferric ions (Fe³⁺) to ferrous ions (Fe²⁺). This method assesses the reducing power of extracts described by Hinneburg et al., (2006)¹⁶ is adapted by Meda et al., (2010)¹². In a test tube, 0.25 mL of an extract solution was mixed with 0.625 mL of phosphate buffer (0.2 M; pH = 6.6) and 0.625 mL of potassium hexacyanoferrate [K₃Fe(CN)₆]. After incubation in a water bath for 30 minutes at 50°C, 0.625 mL of trichloroacetic acid (10%) was added. The mixture was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. 0.625 mL of the supernatant was then mixed with 0.625 mL of distilled water and 0.25 mL of freshly prepared aqueous FeCl₃ solution (0.1%). Absorbances were measured at 700 nm against a calibration curve (y = 3.270 × 10⁻³; R² = 0.9990) obtained from ascorbic acid (0–200 mg/L).

Method ABTS

The antioxidant activity was assessed using the ABTS method described by Meda et al. (2010) was used ¹². It is based on the decolorization of a stable radical cation, ABTS•+ (2,2’-azinobis-[3-ethylenesothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid]), to ABTS in the presence of antioxidant compounds at 734 nm. A methanolic solution (10 mg mL⁻¹) was diluted 1:100 in ethanol. Ten µL of the sample (diluted solution) and the reference substance (ascorbic acid) were mixed with 990 µL of fresh ABTS•⁺ solution. The mixture is kept in the dark for 15 minutes and the absorbances are measured at 734 nm using a spectrophotometer against a standard curve of ascorbic acid (y = -7.874 × 10⁻⁴ + 0.709; R² = 0.9993). Concentration of compounds with a reducing effect on the radical cation

All results were expressed in µmol Ascorbic Acid Equivalent (AAE)/g of extract according to the following formula:

  

C = concentration of antioxidant activity in µmol EAA/g of extract

c = concentration of the sample read from the standard curve

D = dilution factor of the sample being analysed

ci = initial concentration of the solution to be analysed

M = molar mass of ascorbic acid (176.1 g/mol).

2.7.2. Acute toxicity studies ¹⁶

The acute toxicity test was conducted in accordance with OECD Guideline No. 425 ¹⁷. The test was performed on 24 male and female mice divided into four (4) groups of three (3) according to their body weight (p. c), numbered from 1 to 4 (groups of males 3 and females 3) with a control for each group. After subjecting the animals to an 18-hour fast, the control groups were given distilled water (200 µL) and the test groups were given plant extract solutions (5000 mg/kg bw). The extracts were prepared in distilled water. The animals were first monitored for 72 hours for changes in coat condition and mortality. In the event of death, the animal was autopsied and a macroscopic examination of the internal organs was performed to detect any abnormalities. The animals were then kept under observation for 14 days, with weight measurements taken on days 0, 7 and 14. All animals were euthanised at the end of the 14 days.

2.8 Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis of the data was performed using Graph Pad Prism 8.0.2 software, and graphs were created using Microsoft Excel version 2024. Results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation for quantitative variables. To compare groups, an ANOVA test was used with a significance threshold of p < 0.05.

3. RESULTS 

3.1. Ethnobotanical survey

3.1.1. Socio-demographic profile of respondents

A total of fifty (50) traditional practitioners were surveyed in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso. The study revealed that both sexes practiced traditional medicine, with 66% (33/50) being men and 34% (17/50) being women. The survey showed that the youngest traditional practitioner was 24 years old and the oldest was 83 years old. The average age was 50.82 years. The number of years of experience varied between 3 and 40 years. The majority (60%) of those surveyed inherited their knowledge from a family initiation.

3.1.2 Ethnobotanical profile

3.1.2.1 Plant species used

Twenty-five (25) plant species used as doping agents were identified (table 1). They belong to 17 botanical families, the most represented being Combretaceae (4 species) and Anacadiaceae (3 species) (Figure 2). The frequency with which species were cited ranged from 2% to 36.76%. Martynia annua (36.76%), Securidaca longipedunculata (8.82%) and Leptadenia hastata (8.82%) were the species most frequently cited by traditional practitioners (Figure 3). Other plants were used alone or in combination with other plants.

 

 

Figure 2. Doping plant species families

 

  

Figure 3. Frequency of doping species

Table 1: Different species recorded

Scientific Names (Species)	Family	Local Name (Mooré)	Local Name (Dioula)	Parts Used	Biological activities	Phytochemistry
Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr.	Combretaceae	Siiga	-	Leaves	Skin infections, diarrhoea; antioxidant; antibacterial; antifungal; antidermatophytic; depressant 18,19	Phenolic acids; coumarins; tannins ; flavonoids 19
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Meliaceae	Niim	Nîmyiri	Bark	Alkaloids, free alkaloids, triterpenic saponins, triterpenes, quercetin, azadichthine, sitosterols, melialin, diacetylnimbine, vitamin C, carotene, coumarin, nimbosterine, flavones, nonacosane 9	diuretic, diabetes, hepatitis,   antiseptic, anti-infective, yellow fever,  gastric ulcer, analgesic,  emetic, spasm, diabetes,  urogenital infection 9
Bambusa vulgaris Schard. Ex J.C. Wendl.	Poaceae	-	Bambou	Leaves	Allelopathic, stimulant aphrodisiaque. Affaiblissement sexuel 20,9	Tannins, phenols, flavonoids, flavones, flavonols, xanthones and catechins alkaloids, steroids, amino acids, saponins 20
Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br	Asclepiadaceae	Putrepuuga	Fogofog	Leaves; bark	Antiseptic, insecticide, antimicrobial, fever, diarrhoea, rheumatism, antihyperglycaemic, stimulant.9,21	Alkaloids, triterpenes, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, sterols, cardénolides, coumarins 21
Cassia sieberiana DC.	Caesalpiniaceae	Kumbresaka	Siguian	Leaves	anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, diuretic, tonic, anthelmintic, astringent, antimalarial, antidysmenorrheic, antiparasitic, anti-schistosomal, aphrodisiac 23	Mucilage, sterols, tannins, anthraquinones, ß sitosterol, polyphenolic derivatives,  anthracenes 9
Combretum micranthum G. Don	Combretaceae	Randgo	K-inkéliba	Leaves	Antiseptic, wound-healing, antibacterial, antispasmodic 9	Polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, quinones, coumarins, alkaloids, gallic and catechic acids, saponins, mucilages 24
Eucalyptus globulus Dehn.	Myrtaceae	-	Flao	Leaves, bark	Analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antirheumatic, stimulant 25	Terpenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins. Eucalyptol or 1,8-cineole 25
Excoecaria grahamii Stapf & Hutch.	Euphorbiaceae	Kionnem	Lèfaba	Whole plant	Skin conditions, oedema, leprosy, hallucinations, constipation, insecticide, insecticide, dysentery, muscarinic activity, antihypertensives, Relaxant effects 23, 24	anthocyanosides, tanins, s,gallic tannins, flavanoïds, saponins terpenoids 23, 25
Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq.	Moraceae	-	Djatiguifaga	Leaves	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hypotensive, laxative, anti-rheumatic activities 29	Tannins, Saponins ; Flavonoids ; Phenols ; Glycosides 29
Flueggea virosa	Phyllanthaceae	-	Balan balan	Leaves	Analgesic; anti-inflammatory, aphrodisiac ; sedative, ant-arrhythmic ; antidiabetic ; antimalarial ; anti-HIV ; anti-hepatitis C ; anti-diarrheal, cytotoxic, anti-microbial ; antifungal, antioxydant, laxative properties 30	Alkaloids, triterpenoids, tannins ; flavonoids ; resins ; steroids ; cardiac glycosides ; anthraquinones 30
Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel.	Combretaceae	Wilin-wiiga	Koungouè, Kungouè	Bark	Anti-inflammatory ; anti-microbial ; antioxydant ; cytotoxic, antiparasitic; antitussive, antiviral, anti-diarrheal 31	Steroids; saponins; flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, coumarins, anthraquinones, ascorbic acid, cardiotonic glycosides, cyanogenic compounds and terpenoids 31
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss.	Meliaceae	Kuka	Djalan	Bark	Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, skin diseases, diarrhoea, immunostimulants, anti-hyperglycemic, antioxidant, diabetes 32	Saponins, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, phytosteroids, triterpenoids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones, tannins and alkaloids 32
Lannea microcarpa Engl. & K. Krause	Anacardiaceae	Sambga	Pekoûn	Fruit	Antibacterial ; anti-Inflammatory ; antifungal ; antihypertensive; antioxidant; antiprotozoal and antitrypanosomal activities ; hypertension ; Respiratory problems 32	Myricetin glycosides ; flavonoids ; trihydroxybenzoic acid ; flavone ; anthocyanin 32
Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) Decne.	Asclepiadaceae	Lelongo	Kosafla	Roots	Anti-androgénique ; anti-diabetic ; antibacterial and antimicrobialAnti-androgénique ; anti-diabetic ; antibacterial and antimicrobial 33	phenolic glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, alkaloids and saponins phenolic glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, alkaloids and saponins 33
Loeseneriella africana	Celastraceae	-	Kogotigui	Leaves	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant 34	Alkaloids, triterpenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids, tannins, coumarins 34
Mangifera indica L.	Anacardiaceae	Mangue-tiga	Mangoro	Leaves	antioxidant, gastro-protective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, immunomodulatory, anti-microbial, 35	Polyphenols ; phenolic acids ; flavonoids ; Vitamin-C, Vitamin-E, Carbohydrates, Amino acids, Organic acids 35
Martynia annua L.	Myrtaceae	-	Soubaga-won	Whole plant	epilepsy, inflammatory, sore throat, burns, itching, skin affections and tuberculosis. anthelmintic, analgesic, antipyretic, antibacterial, anti-convulsant, antifertility, antinociceptive, antioxidant, depressant, antidiabetic 36	alkaloids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, flavonoids, anthocyanins, amino acid, steroids, phenol 36
Opilia amentacea	Opiliaceae	Wagsaiga	Korogouein	Leaves	anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, wound healing, and anticancer activities., dermatoses, malaria, wounds, abdominal pain, internal worms, jaundice, headache 37	Triterpenes, and flavonoids, tannins polyphenol 38
Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don	Mimosaceae	Roanga	Nèrè	Roots	Antibacterial ; Antibacterial ; Antimicrobial Antivira 39	tannins, flavonoids, anthraquinones, coumarins, mucilages ; saponosides 39
Sarcocephalus latifolius (J.M. Smith.) Bruc	Rubiaceae	Winga	-	Leaves	Gonorrhea, cough, fever, hemorrhoid, dysentery, malaria, bilharzia, headache, constipation, syphilic chancre antiradical, antimicrobial 40	Catechic, tannins, saponosides, flavonoids, leuco an-thocyanins, coumarins, mucilages, sterols, terpenes 40
Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.	Anacardiaceae	Noabga	Douda	Fruit	Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant 41	Tannins, flavonoids amino acids, including leucine, lysine 41
Securidaca longipedunculata Fres.	Polygalaceae	Pèlga	Djoro, Diouro	Roots	Pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant 42	Saponins, tannins, anthraquinones, alkaloïds, terpenes, stéroids, sugars, caffeic acid 42
Sterospermum kunthianum Cham.	Bignoniaceae	Ninyilinga	-	Leaves	ulcer, rheumatic arthritis and dysenteria, diabetes, diarrhoea, antibacteria, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antihelmintic, nalgesic, antioxidant, diuretic 43	Gallic, catechic, tannins, flavonoids, saponosides, alkaloids, sterols, polyterpenes, affeic and chlorogenic acids 43
Tamarindus indica L.	Caesalpiniaceae	Pusga	Ntomi, Toni	Fruit	Ulcers, inflammation, diarrhea, dysentery, vertigo, diabetes, analgesic, Fungicidal, antioxydant, Anti-inflammatory 44	Phenolic, tannins, fatty acids, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, glycosides, amino acids 44
Terminalia macroptera Guill. & Perr.	Combretaceae	Kodpooko	Woloba	Leaves, bark	Diarrhea, pain, fever anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic , hepatoprotective o antibacterial, antifungal, antiplas modial, antitrypanosomal, and antiviral 45	Tannins, flavonoids, saponins, anthracene, sterols, triterpenes and sugars 45

 

 

3.1.2.2. Parts of organs used 

Leaves were the most used part of the plant (55.13%), followed by roots (21.79%) (Figure 4).

Figure 4: organs used

3.3. Phytochemistry analysis 

Total phenolic content of the extracts significantly varied and ranged from 7.57 ± 0.24 to 11.9 ± 0.43 mg EAG/100 mg extract (P 0.05; Table 1). The highest content was obtained from the whole plant of M. annua, with a value of 11.9 ± 0.43 mg EAG/100 mg extract. The total flavonoid content ranged from 0.34 ± 0.04 to 4.05 ± 0.56 mg EQ/100 mg of extract. The best result was obtained with M. annua at 4.81 ± 0.64 mg EQ/100 mg of extract. Condensed tannin content ranged from 0.4 ± 0.04 to 3.32 ± 0.09 mg CAT/100 mg, with the highest content obtained from the roots of L. hastata at 3.32 ± 0.09 mg CAT/100 mg. (Table 2).

 

 

Table 2. Phenolic compounds content

Extract	Part used	Total phenolic mg EAG/100mg	Total flavonoids mg EQ/100mg	Condensed tannins mg EAT/100mg
SL	Root	8,64 ±0,49ab	0,34 ±0,04a	0.4 ± 0,04a
LH	Root	7,57 ±0,24a	0,9 ±0,05a	3,32 ± 0,09c
MA	Plant	11,9 ±0,43b	4,05 ±0,56b	1,35 ± 0,16b

(a-c) are significantly different at P < 0.05; SL: Securidaca longipedunculata, LH: Leptadenia hastata, MA: Martynia annua

 

 

3.4. Biological properties 

3.4.1. Antioxidant capacities 

Compared to quercetin and trolox, which are reference compounds with antioxidant activity of 646.85 µmol EAA/g and 785.99 µmol EAA/g respectively, the antioxidant activity of the plant species was lower. The species S. longepedunculata had the best antioxidant activity among the three (03) species using the DPPH (315.77 ± 0.14 EAA/100mg) and ABTS (1929.77 ± 1.38 EAA/100mg) methods. Using the FRAP method, the species Martinia annua showed the best antioxidant activity (833.03 ± 0.90 EAA/100mg) (Table 3).

 

 

Table 3. Antioxidant activity

Extrait	Part used	DPPH µmol EAA/100mg	FRAP µmol EAA/100mg	ABTS µmol EAA/100mg
SL	Root	315.77 ±0.14c	347.32 ±0.53b		1929.77 ± 1.38c
LH	Root	135.32 ±0.47a	155.86 ±0.52a		117.79 ± 3.67a
MA	Plant	156,61 ±0.05ab	833.03 ±0.90c		865.42 ± 1.27b
Trolox	Reference molecules	765.98±0.31e	5991.29±1.33e		8137.61±0.24d
Quercetin		646.8±0.02d	2211.24±0.63d		14664.01±0.24e

(a-e) are significantly different at P < 0.05; SL: Securidaca longipedunculata, LH: Leptadenia hastata, MA: Martynia annua

 

 

3.4.2. Plants acute toxicities 

The toxicological evaluation of plant extracts showed no mortality after oral administration of plant extracts from L. hastata and M. annua at a dose of 5000 mg/kg. Autopsy of the animals revealed no changes in the general appearance of internal organs such as the liver, spleen, kidneys, and lungs. The relative weight of the organs was unchanged in the treated groups compared to the control group. In the toxicity test on the species S. longepedunculata, mortality was observed, with five (5) (Table 4).

 

 

 

 

Table 4. Weekly body weight and relative organ weights after two weeks

Parameter	Control		Extract of L. hastata roots		M. annua plant extract		Extract of S. longepedunculata roots
	200 µL of distilled water		5,000 mg/kg (body weight)
Mice	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
Number of mice per extract	03	03	03	03	03	03	03	03
Poids corporel (g)
Day 0	39.00±0.00	36.63±0.25	36.20±0.46	31.06±0.37	42.07±1.03	42.66±0.25	39.33±0.30	40.16±0.97
Day 7	36.52±1.18	36.22±0.82	40.69±2.23	34.39±2.21	40.28±5.35	42.31±1.90	-	-
Day 14	42.16±1.66	37.79±1.59	42.18±2.30	35.17±1.87	40.30±5.53	42.17±1.57	-	-
Weight gain
Day 14	3.16	1.16	5.98	4.10	-1.77	-0.49	-	-
Mortality	0	0	0	0	0	0	03	02
Animal organs	Weight of organs
Heart	0.38±0.01	0.38±0.08	0.42±0.02	0,34±0.00	0.41±0.07	0.39±0.03	-	-
Lungs	0.46±0.10	0.51±0.09	0.57±0.00	0.54±0.05	0.58±0.08	0.59±0.02	-	-
Liver	3.32±0.14	2.74±0.28	3.24±0.11	2.95±0.45	3.20±0.27	3.36±0.08	-	-
Kidneys	0.91±0.05	0.72±0.10	0.92±0.05	0.75±0.07	0.81±0.12	0.86±0.13	-	-
Spleen	0.43±0.04	0.40±0.12	0.58±0.28	0.34±0.05	0.45±0.12	0.40±0.08	-	-

 

 

4. DISCUSSION

The ethnobotanical study aimed to catalogue medicinal plants used for doping in the Guiriko region, specifically in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso. During the survey, the average age was around 50. Other studies conducted in Togo also found that the average age of traditional practitioners was 53 and 51, respectively. This shows that traditional medicine is more commonly practised by older people ^{43, 44}. Many traditional practitioners were men (66%). This could be explained by the fact that traditional medicine is often more reserved for men ^{5, 45}.

The ethnobotanical study identified 25 species divided into 17 families. This result demonstrates traditional practitioners' knowledge of the diversity of medicinal plants and their properties. Studies have shown that local populations in Burkina Faso are better known for benefiting from the best of biodiversity in traditional medicine ⁴⁹. The study shows that the species M. annua (36.76%), S. longipedunculata (8.82%) and L. hastata (8.82%) were most frequently cited. According to some authors, the species S. longipedunculata and L. hastata are used for their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, antidepressant and sedative properties ^{8, 46, 47, 48}. Previous studies have shown that these species are used in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders such as epilepsy and psychosis ⁸.

This study shows that traditional practitioners mainly use leaves and roots, which could be explained by the availability of these plant parts throughout the year, but their effectiveness is linked to the significant accumulation of chemical compounds in these organs ⁶. However, the use of roots poses a threat to biodiversity. In 2019, Tiendrébéogo et al. ⁵² also found that roots and bark were used in 41% of cases in eight villages in the province of Soum, compared to 43% for leaves.

The analysis of polyphenolic compounds showed different levels between the hydroethanolic extracts of S. longepedunculata, L. hastata and M. annua. These results show that polyphenolic compounds vary from one species to another. This variation in content may be due to the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on the synthesis of secondary metabolites. This content could be attributed in part to the nature of the extraction solvent used ⁵³. Several studies in the literature have shown that phenolic compounds have multiple biological properties. Studies have shown that the species S. longepedunculata, M. annua and L. hastata have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, depressive and convulsive properties. These properties could be due to the presence of these phenolic compounds ^{49, 51, 52, 53 54}. This could justify the use of these plants to treat pain, fatigue, stress and depression. According to Kinda et al. (2017) ⁶, certain flavonoids have anxiolytic effects and neuroprotective activities; the high flavonoid content of the species M. annua could be responsible for the traditional use of this plant.

The results of the acute toxicity assessment in this study show that extracts from the roots of L. hastata and the whole plant of M. annua have LD₅₀ values greater than 5000 mg/kg (b.w.). According to OECD guidelines, any drug or pharmaceutical compound with an oral LD50 greater than 2000 mg/kg could be considered safe or low in toxicity ¹⁸. This result suggests that hydroethanolic extracts of L. hastata and M. annua are virtually non-toxic at a single dose of up to 5000 mg/kg (b.w) administered orally. Previous studies have shown signs of toxicity at a dose of 5000 mg/kg (b.w) of the methanolic extract of L. hastata roots, which differ from our findings. This could explain that the degree of toxicity of the species is due to the route of administration and the type of solvent used for extraction [58]. The change in body weight could be due to fat accumulation or a physiological adaptation response such as decreased appetite rather than the toxic effects of the drugs ⁴⁹.

CONCLUSION

This study identified 50 plant species, the most cited of which were M. annua, L. hastata and S. longepedunculata. Laboratory analyses showed the presence of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in these plant extracts. The acute toxicity study showed that the species S. longepedunculata was toxic at a dose of 5000 mg/kg b.w. The study identified several medicinal plants used as performance-enhancing substances

Acknowledgements: We thank the AAPSJ/PCD/2022 project at FONRID for funding

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict interest 

REFERENCES

1. Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS. Stratégie de l'OMS pour la médecine traditionnelle pour 2014-2023 [Internet]. 2013: Organisation mondiale de la Santé. Disponible sur: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/95009 

2. Zerbo P, Millogo Rasolodimby J, Nacoulma Ouedraogo O, Van Damme P. Plantes médicinales et pratiques médicales au Burkina Faso : cas des Sanan. Bois for trop. 1 mars 2011;307:41‑53. https://doi.org/10.19182/bft2011.307.a20481

3. Olivier M, Zerbo P, Boussim J, Guinko S. Les plantes des galeries forestières à usage traditionnel par les tradipraticiens de santé et les chasseurs Dozo Sénoufo du Burkina Faso. Int J Bio Chem Sci. 7 févr 2013;6(5):2170‑91. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v6i5.24

4. Kam SE, Meda RNT, Kabre Z, Koama BK, Ouoba HY, Yameogo, V., et al. Ethnobotanical Survey of Plants used by Traditional Healers for Treatment of Urinary Infections in Hauts-Bassins Areas of Burkina Faso. International Journal of Science and Research. 2020;9(5):1113‑8.

5. Armandine Lema, Mindiédiba Jean Bangou, Mamadou Sawadogo, Hyacinthe Mindiempo, Thiombiano, Hermann Yempabou Ouoba. Medicinal plant recipes used in the management of peptic ulcers in Burkina Faso: Ethnobotanical study. Int J Sci Res Arch. 30 juin 2022;6(1):263‑78. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2022.6.1.0133

6. Kinda P, Zerbo P, Guenné S, Compaoré M, Ciobica A, Kiendrebeogo M. Medicinal Plants Used for Neuropsychiatric Disorders Treatment in the Hauts Bassins Region of Burkina Faso. Medicines. 19 mai 2017;4(2):32. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4020032 PMid:28930246 PMCid:PMC5590068

7. Ouattara YSR, Zerbo P, Ouattara A, Sourabie S, Boussim JI. Connaissances endogènes des plantes utilisées dans la prise en charge des troubles de reproduction humaine en zone soudanienne du Burkina Faso. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences. 2023;56(3):10364‑77.

8. Sama H, Traoré M, Guenné S, Séré I, Hilou A, Dicko MH. Ethnobotanical and Phytochemical Profiling of Medicinal Plants from Burkina Faso Used to Increase Physical Performance. Medicines. 28 janv 2022;9(2):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines9020010 PMid:35200754 PMCid:PMC8878663

9. MINISTÈRE DE LA SANTE. Guide des plantes médicinales autorisées au Burkina Faso. 2020.

10. Strupler M, Perret C. Les substances dopantes et la lutte contre le dopage dans le sport - quelques informations sur la probléma tique du dopage. Forum Med Suisse. 2012;12(8):165‑9. https://doi.org/10.4414/fms.2012.07792

11. Singleton VL, Orthofer R, Lamuela-Raventós RM. [14] Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu reagent. In: Methods in Enzymology Elsevier; 1999 [cité 24 avr 2026]. p. 152‑78. Disponible sur: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0076687999990171 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(99)99017-1

12. Meda NTR, Lamien-Med A, Kiendrebeo M, Lamien CE, Coulibaly AY, Millogo-Ra J, et al. In vitro Antioxidant, Xanthine Oxidase and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activities of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae). Pakistan J of Biological Sciences. 1 avr 2010;13(8):362‑8. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2010.362.368 PMid:20836295

13. Agbangnan, PDC, achon C, Bonin H, Chrostowka A, Fouquet E, Sohounhloue DCK. Phytochemical study of a tinctorial plant of Benin traditional pharmacopoeia: the red sorghum (Sorghum caudatum) of Benin. Scientific Study & Research Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology, Food Industry. 2012;13(2).

14. Velázquez E, Tournier HA, Mordujovich De Buschiazzo P, Saavedra G, Schinella GR. Antioxidant activity of Paraguayan plant extracts. Fitoterapia. févr 2003;74(1‑2):91‑7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(02)00293-9 PMid:12628400

15. Koleva II, Van Beek TA, Linssen JPH, Groot AD, Evstatieva LN. Screening of Plant Extracts for Antioxidant Activity: a Comparative Study on Three Testing Methods. Phytochemical Analysis. janv 2002;13(1):8‑17. https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.611 PMid:11899609

16. Hinneburg I, Damien Dorman HJ, Hiltunen R. Antioxidant activities of extracts from selected culinary herbs and spices. Food Chemistry. juill 2006;97(1):122‑9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.03.028

17. Lorke D. A new approach to practical acute toxicity testing. Arch Toxicol. déc 1983;54(4):275‑87. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01234480 PMid:6667118

18. OCDE. Essai n° 425: Toxicité aiguë par voie orale: méthode de l'ajustement des doses [Internet]. OECD; 2022 [cité 24 avr 2026]. (Lignes directrices de l'OCDE pour les essais de produits chimiques, Section 4). Disponible sur: https://www.oecd.org/fr/publications/essai-n-425-toxicite-aigue-par-voie-orale-methode-de-l-ajustement-des-doses_9789264071056-fr.html  https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264071056-fr

19. Bene K, Camara D, Kanga Y, Zirihi GN. Activité antidermatophytique in vitro d'un extrait hydroéthanolique d' Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. (Combretaceae). Phytothérapie. août 2023;21(4):209‑13. https://doi.org/10.3166/phyto-2022-0379

20. Ganfon H, Houvohessou JP assanhou AG, Bankole HS, Gbenou J. Activité antibactérienne de l'extrait éthanolique et des fractions de Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC) Guill. Et Perr. (Combretaceae). Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2019. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i2.6

21. Alencar SR, Silva MAP, Figueiredo MF, Santos MAF, Generino MEM, Torquato IHS, et al. Biological Activity of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. (Poaceae). JAS. 15 mai 2015;7(6):p150. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v7n6p150

22. Damando D, Yaméogo BGJ, Zimé-Diawara H, Sawadogo M, Kaboré B, Koala M, et al. Analyse phytochimique et évaluation de l'activité larvicide contre le vecteur de la dengue (Aedes aegypti) d'extraits de feuilles de Calotropis procera R. br (Apocynaceae) en vue de leur utilisation comme bio-insecticide. JATPB. 20 déc 2023;2(3). https://doi.org/10.57220/jatpb.v2i3.103

23. Ehoussou CN, Tianga YS, Sirabana C, Georges A. evaluation de la toxicite subaigue des ecorces de racine de cassia sieberiana. ijar. 31 août 2022;10(08):375‑82. https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/15189

24. Mogue, I., Bayaga, H, Tembe Fokunang, E., Njinkio Nono, B., Tamanji, V, Yves Omgba,T, et al. Étude Phytochimique et Évaluation de l'activité anti salmonella typhi des extraits de combretum micranthum (combrétaceae). Sciences de la Santé et Maladies. 2021;22(06). 

25. zohra A, Ferhat H, Kambrit K. Etude phytochimique et évaluation des activité biologiques de l'Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). Université Ibn Khaldoun; 2023. Disponible sur: http://dspace.univ-tiaret.dz:80/handle/123456789/13240 

26. Dabiré PA, Ouédraogo Y, Somé AA, Sawadogo S, Ouédraogo I, Ilboudo EM, et al. Relaxant Effects of the Aqueous Extract of Excoecaria grahamii (Euphorbiaceae) Leaves on Uterine Horn Contractility in Wistar Rats. Maciejczyk M, éditeur. BioMed Research International. janv 2021;2021(1):6618565. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6618565 PMid:33928151 PMCid:PMC8053055

27. Ouedraogo Y, Raymond GB. Muscarinic activity of aqueous leaves extract of Excoecaria grahamii Stapf 1913 on rabbit blood pressure and toad isolated perfused heart. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 8 févr 2015;9(5):114‑22. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPP2014.4234

28. Dabiré PA, Somé AA, Sawadogo S, Sayah K, Fettach S. Antioxidant and Anti-Hyperglycemic Activities of Aqueous and Hydro-Ethanolic Extracts of Excoecaria grahamii (Euphorbiacea). Sch Acad J Pharm. 9 sept 2022;11(9):133‑9. https://doi.org/10.36347/sajp.2022.v11i09.002

29. Olayinka BU, Abdulkareem AK, Adeyemi S, Anwo IO, Lawal AR, Akinwunmi M, et al. Ficus ingens (MIQ.) MIQ. (moraceae): Phytochemical andproximate composition. Annals of West University of Timişoara. 2017;20(2):53‑158.

30. Dénou A, Haïdara M, Diakité F, Doumbia S, Lassine Dembélé D, Sanogo R. Phytochemicals and Biological Activities of Flueggea virosa (Phyllanthaceae) Used in the Traditional Treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Mali. JDMP. 2021;7(4):119. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jdmp.20210704.14

31. Tine Y, Diop M, Ndoye I, Diallo A, Wele A. Revue bibliographique sur la composition chimique et les activités biologiques de Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (Combretaceae). Int J Bio Chem Sci. 13 févr 2020;13(7):3449‑62. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i7.37

32. Rabadeaux C, Vallette L, Sirdaarta J, Davis C, Cock IE. An examination of the Antimicrobial and Anticancer Properties of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Bark Extracts. Phcog J. 5 juin 2017;9(4):504‑18. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2017.4.82

33. Chukwuma IF, Nworah FN, Apeh VO, Omeje KO, Nweze EJ, Asogwa CD, et al. Phytochemical Characterization, Functional Nutrition, and Anti-Diabetic Potentials of Leptadenia hastata (pers) Decne Leaves: In Silico and In Vitro Studies. Bioinform Biol Insights. janv 2022;16:11779322221115436. https://doi.org/10.1177/11779322221115436 PMid:35982736 PMCid:PMC9379957

34. Anokwah D, Asante-Kwatia E, Jibira Y, Amponsah IK, Kyei S, Cobbold GP, et al. Pharmacognostic study, anti-inflammatory and, antioxidant activities of Loeseneriella africana. South African Journal of Botany. juin 2023;157:174‑88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2023.03.027

35. Rajasekaran A, Soundarapandian S. Nutritional and medicinal values of Mangifera indica L. fruit. TH. 9 nov 2023;6(2):2949. https://doi.org/10.24294/th.v6i2.2949

36. Rameshroo K, Pushpa P, Trilochan S, Amit R. Martynia annua: An Overview. PBJ. 9 nov 2013;07‑10. https://doi.org/10.20510/ukjpb/1/i1/91102

37. Youl O, Moné-Bassavé BRH, Yougbaré S, Yaro B, Traoré T.K, et al. Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Opilia amentacea Roxb (Previously Opilia celtidifolia (Opiliaceae) Guill. Perr.): A Review. Lett Appl NanoBioSci. 30 déc 2024;13(4):163. https://doi.org/10.33263/LIANBS134.163

38. Youl O, Moné-Bassavé BRH, Yougbaré S, Yaro B, Traoré TK, Boly R, et al. Phytochemical Screening, Polyphenol and Flavonoid Contents, and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Opilia amentacea Roxb. (Opiliaceae) Extracts. Applied Biosciences. 6 sept 2023;2(3):493‑512. https://doi.org/10.3390/applbiosci2030031

39. Donatien A, Laboratoire d'Etude et de Recherche en Chimie Appliquée, Ecole Polytechnique d'Abomey -Calavi, Université d'Abomey-Calavi (LERCA/EPAC/UAC)., Telle K, Bienvenue C, Pascal A, Eugenie A, et al. biochemical profile and antioxidant activity of parkia biglobosa and tamarindus indica fruits acclimated in benin. ijar. 31 oct 2018;6(11):702‑11. https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/8050

40. BAKROU EOD, KOUDORO Y, DAH-NOUVLESSOUNON D, BOYA B, ADJOU ES, AVLESSI F, et al. Phytochemistry, anti-radical and antimicrobial activities of Sarcocephalus latifolius leaves, used in Benin to treat urinary tract infections. Chemistry Research Journal. 2023;8(6):57‑64.

41. Mariod AA, Abdelwahab SI. Sclerocarya birrea (Marula), An African Tree of Nutritional and Medicinal Uses: A Review. Food Reviews International. oct 2012;28(4):375‑88. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.660716

42. Dembele DL, Haidara M D, Denou A, Sanogo R. Etude Phytochimique Des Écorces De Racines Et Des Feuilles De Securidaca longipedunculata (Fresen), Polygalaceae Au Mali. ESJ. 31 août 2021;17(29). https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2021.v17n29p145

43. Compaoré M, Lamien-Meda A, Mogoşan C, Lamien CE, Kiendrebeogo M, Voştinaru O, et al. Antioxidant, diuretic activities and polyphenol content of Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. (Bignoniaceae). Natural Product Research. nov 2011;25(19):1777‑88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.488630 PMid:21656419

44. Ashfaque A, Wasim A, Fahmeeda Z, Mohd S. Therapeutic, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Tamarindus indica: A review. International Journal of Unani and Integrative Medicine. 2018;2(2):14‑9. https://doi.org/10.33545/2616454X.2018.v2.i2a.27

45. Haïdara M, Dénou A, Haddad M, Camara A, Traoré K, Aubouy A, et al. Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory, Anti-pyretic, Analgesic, and Hepatoprotective Properties of Terminalia macroptera. Planta Medica International Open. mai 2020;07(02):e58‑67. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1142-7072

46. Doumongue T, Koula F doh C, Bledu KM, Gbekley EH, Effoe S, Hoekou YP, et al. Etude ethnobotanique des plantes utilisées dans le traitement des troubles du système nerveux dans la médecine traditionnelle au Togo. Int J Bio Chem Sci. 19 sept 2023;17(4):1371‑83. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v17i4.7

47. Kantati YT, Kodjo KM, Dogbeavou KS, Vaudry D, Leprince J, Gbeassor M. Ethnopharmacological survey of plant species used in folk medicine against central nervous system disorders in Togo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. avr 2016;181:214‑20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.006 PMid:26869544

48. Sawadogo M, Bangou MJ, Lema A, Thiombiano MH, Ouoba HY, Ouoba B. Medicinal Plants Used in Composition of Anti-Viral Hepatitis Recipes in Burkina Faso: Ethnobotanical Study. EJPHARMA. 29 juill 2022;2(2):1‑10. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejpharma.2022.2.2.34

49. Kinda P, Guenné S, Compaoré M, Bayala B, Ciobica A, Belemtougri R, et al. Toxicological characterization and central nervous system effects of Calotropis procera Ait. aqueous extracts in mice. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2019;12(7):329. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-7645.262077

50. Baguia-Broune FDM, N'Gaman-Kouassi KCC, Mamyrbekova-Békro JA, Virieux D, Békro YA. Saponines des racines de Securidaca longipedunculata (Polygalaceae) : quantification et évaluation anti-oxydante. . Nature & Technology, Class B : Agronomic and Biological Sciences. 2018;19:25‑30.

51. Momoh TB, Agatemor UMM, Ozioko EN, Ahmed OM, Olubiyo GT. Neuropharmacological Effects of the Methanol Extract of Leptadenia hastata Leaves in Rodents. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci. 2020;7(7):89‑95.

52. R-Tiendrebeogo A, Zerbo R, Ouattara B, Doulkoum A, Guissou IP. Plantes sahéliennes adaptées dans la récupération des terres dégradées et leurs usages pour la santé: cas de la province du Soum au Nord du Burkina Faso. JAnimPlant Sci. 31 juill 2019;41(1):6767‑83. https://doi.org/10.35759/JAnmPlSci.v41-1.4

53. Bangou MJ, Méda NTR, Thiombiano AME, Kiendrebéogo M, Zeba B, Millogo-Rasolodimby J, et al. Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities of Five Verbenaceae Species from Burkina Faso. Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences. 2012;4(6):665‑72.

54. Muanda FN, Dicko A, Soulimani R. Assessment of polyphenolic compounds, in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammation properties of Securidaca longepedunculata root barks. Comptes Rendus Biologies. 23 août 2010;333(9):663‑9. PMid:20816646 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2010.07.002

55. Dhingra AK, Chopra B, Mittal SK. Martynia annua L. A Review on Its Ethnobotany, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Profile. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013;1(6):135‑40.

56. Mukhtar ZG, Ibrahim YI, Kabara HT, Alhassan AJ, Yunusa I, Rabiu Z, et al. Leptadenia hastate Leaves Elicit Medicinal Properties. Chemistry Research Journal, 2019;4(4):53-57.

57. Bello A, Aliero AA, Saidu Y, Muhammad S. Phytochemical Screening, Polyphenolic Content and Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitory Potential of Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) Decne. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science. 2011;19(2):181‑6.

58. Bah F, Dozolme PMA, Diallo MS, Nyandwi R, Daffé ML, Touré A, et al. In vitro and in vivo Evaluation of the Toxicity Roots of Leptadenia hastata (PER) Decne. Cytotoxicity on Caco2 and HepG2 Cells, Acute and Subacute Toxicity on Wistar Rats. J Toxicol Risk Assess. 31 déc 2022;8(1). https://doi.org/10.23937/2572-4061.1510045