Available online on 25.08.2022 at http://jddtonline.info

Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics

Open Access to Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

Copyright  © 2011-2022 The  Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original author and source are credited

Open Access  Full Text Article                                                                                                                                               Review Article

Catnip (Nepeta cataria L.): Recent Advances in Pharmacognosy, Cultivation, Chemical Composition and Biological Activity

Zen Saleh Ibrahim¹, Rahma Qayssar¹, Sara Sardar¹, Eman jamal¹, Laza Saadi Mustafa Senjawi², Eron Sleman¹, Halo Fazil¹ and Omji Porwal¹*

¹ Department of Pharmacy, Tishk international University, Erbil, KRG, Iraq-44001

² Department of Clinical pharmacy, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey-34755

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants and traditional medicines has a very long history: it is the sum total of the practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences of different cultures and times, often inexplicable used in the maintenance of health, like prevention, diagnosis, improvement and treatment of illnesses. In every country traditional medicines find foundation in religious beliefs. WHO is engaged to establish definitive guidelines for methodology of clinical research and the appraisal of effectiveness of traditional medicines. Herbal medicine is the use of medicinal plants for prevention and treatment of diseases: it ranges from traditional and popular medicines of every country to the use of standardized and titrated herbal extracts. Generally cultural rootedness and widespread use in a Traditional Medical System may indicate safety, but not efficacy of treatments. In herbal medicine, tradition is almost completely based on remedies containing active principles at very low and ultra-low concentrations or relying on magical-energetic principles¹. In modern medicines, plants occupy a significant place as raw material for some important drugs, although synthetic drugs and biotechnology have brought about a revolution in controlling different diseases. There is a growing tendency all over the world, to shift from synthetic to natural based products including medicinal and aromatic plants. Less than 5% of the plants have so far been analyzed as potential medicine and still there is a great scope of research in this field. There is a need to develop strong linkages between growers, collectors, health experts and pharmaceutical industries for developing scientific basis on which these systems of medicine are working². The genus Nepeta is one of the largest from the Lamiaceae (labiatae or mint) family, with ca. 300 species, distributed in temperate regions, mainly in central and southern Europe, the Near East, central and southern Asia, and some parts of Africa and it is naturalized in North America, Himalayan region of India (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Leh-Ladakh), Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistani Kashmir), Nepal (Baglund district). Most Nepeta species are endemics, especially in Southwestern Asia (Turkey and Iran) ³. The essential oils and various extracts isolated from different species of this genus have been a wealthy source of special class of terpenoids known as iridoids along with other classes of secondary metabolites (SMs). These SMs showed a wide range of biological activities and have been used since prehistoric times in various traditional medicines. These have been used as diuretic, expectorant, antispasmodic^4-6, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antiasthmatic, antiseptic^7,8, sedative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, antioxidant⁹, insecticidal, antimicrobial¹⁰, antiviral and fungicidal¹¹. Further, these have also been used against scorpion and snakebites^4,6, stomach diseases⁸, kidney and teeth troubles, liver diseases¹² and many problems of heart such as tachycardia, angina pectoris, cardiac thrombosis, and heart weakness and have showed numerous biological activities, viz. analgesic, antiasthmatic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, fungicidal, herbicidal, insecticidal, sedative, and insect repellent. Nepeta cataria (catnip or catmint, N. cataria), an aromatic perennial herb, belongs to genus Nepeta of Lamiaceae family and has been well known for its medicinal and therapeutic values. It has acted as the representative plant of this genus because it has been the most studied species of this genus. The name catmint is derived from the strong attraction most cats have towards this species^13-16. It is well known that this plant is a potent behavior-altering drug, i.e. provokes stupor or euphoria in domestic cats and large wild cats (name catnip is derived from words: nip meaning a small quantity of liquor, that intoxicates cats) ^{17, 18}. Because of this, it is often used in pet toy industry as a safe attractant for cats, especially for cats kept indoors in order to improve the quality of life and to attenuate stress ^{19, 20}.  The main compounds responsible for this reaction in cats are nepetalactones.  N.cataria has also been known for its essential oil and SMs, which showed tremendous applications in pharmaceutical, agrochemical and food industries. It was shown by the different research groups that the essential oil and different extracts isolated from N. cataria have been a rich source of nepetalactones and related compounds (iridoids), which have been mainly responsible for different biological activities of the plant, viz. cat attractant, insect pheromone, insecticidal and insect repellent, etc ^18-24. It has been reported that the biological activity of nepetalactone mainly depends upon the configuration at C-7²⁵. Nepetalactone has also been found to be the major component in the defensive secretions of lubber grasshopper and the coconut stick insect¹⁸. Besides these compounds the plant also contains other compounds related to different classes of natural products like flavonoids (luteolin 7-O-glucuronide, 7-O-glucurono-glucoside, apigenin 7-O-glucuronide, etc.); phenolic acid (caffeic, rosmarinic acids, gallic acid, etc.) ^26-30; steroids (ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-amyrin, etc.) ²⁷ and terpenoids (1,8-cineole, α-bisbolene, α-citral, β-caryophyllene, β-farnesene, geraniol, α-humulene, α-terpineol, etc.) ^28-30.The Taxonomy of N. cataria consists of Kingdom: Plantae, Subkingdom: Viridiplantae, Infrakingdom: Streptophyta, Superdivision: Embryophyta,   Division: Magnoliophyta,    Phylum:  Magnoliophyta, Class: Angiospermae, Subclass: Asteridae,Category: Lamiids, Order: Lamiales, Superorder: Asteranae, Family: Lamiaceae, Subfamily: Nepetoideae, Genus: Nepeta, Species: cataria³¹. The vernacular names of the plant are English: catmint, French: cataire, Germany: echte Katzenminze,Italian: cataria, Japanese: chikumahakka, Spanish :albahaca and commonly known as catnip, catswort,catwort, field balmand catmint³². Therefore, in this study, the ethno pharmacological review of N. cataria was carried out aimed at providing a detailed precis of the botany, cultivation, ethnomedicinal uses, pharmacological activities and chemical composition of the species.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To recognize pertinent information on the phytochemistry, cultivation, botany, medicinal uses and biological activities of N. cataria, a review was amassed based on scientific literature from a variety of sources including Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, Scielo, Springerlink, Google Patents, Web of Science, Sci Finder, Scopus, Espacenet, BioMed Central (BMC) and Medline. The keywords used for recognition of relevant data included dissimilar scientific name and synonyms, common English names and the terms: biological activities, ethnobotany, medicinal uses, medicinal, ethnopharmacology, pharmacology, phytochemistry and therapeutic value, N. cataria, catnip, catswort, catwort, field balm and catmint ect. Further literatures were finding from books, book chapters, theses, websites and conference proceedings.

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus Nepeta is distributed in temperate regions, mainly in central and southern Europe, the Near East, central and southern Asia and some parts of Africa and it is naturalized in North America. Most Nepeta species are endemics, especially in Southwestern Asia (Turkey and Iran).Most of the genus Nepeta species have been herbaceous in nature and are used for variety of medical purposes by local and tribal peoples of hilly regions of Turkey, Iran, Korea, Japan and particularly Himalayan region of India, China, Pakistan, Bhutan and Afghanistan³³.Nepeta cataria is native to southern Siberia, Central Asia, China and Eastern Europe. Plant widely grows outside to native area, especially in Eurasia, North America, and Africa. This plant prefers slightly alkaline soil to grow³⁴.

CULTIVATION 

N. cataria is cultivated for ornamental purposes and because of the long flowering duration (late May through late August – early September) and large production of pollen and nectar it is very suitable for beekeeping^35-37. Apart from this, because of its use in pharmaceutical and food industry, as well as in pet toy industry, N. cataria has been grown on a large scale. It is one of the most promising aromatic plants in Egypt³⁸, Ukraine and North America³⁹. ʻCR9ʼ is the first cultivar of N. cataria in North America developed specifically for commercial agricultural production with a more upright growth habit and higher biomass, essential oil and Z,E-nepetalactone yield. Apart from that, in germplasm collection and breeding program different genotypes of N. cataria are used. These are characterized by completely devoid or producing little amounts of nepetalactone and by a distinct lemony aroma³⁹. In Ukraine, there are two varieties of N. cataria var. citriodora: ʻMelodyʼ (for growing in the forest-steppe zone) and ʻPeremozhetsʼ (for steppe zone). N. cataria plants prefer slightly alkaline soil even though they are not very demanding about the soil-type, however, they prefer well drained ground. N. cataria is propagated by seed. Weight of 1000 seeds is 0.5 g. Under open field conditions seed is mainly sown in autumn, conversely, if the sowing is done during spring stratification is necessary⁴⁰. Crops that are established by seedling in the greenhouse in April are transplanted into the field in May. In experiments conducted in Egypt, the seed of N. cataria was sown every month from October to April in nurseries to study the effect of date of sowing on germination percentage. Pure sand soil (S1), mixture of 1 vol. sand + 1 vol clay (S2) and mixture of 2 vol sand + 1 vol clay loamy (S3) were used as germination medium. Seedlings of N. cataria were planted in the field on 15^th April in hills 30 cm apart in rows 60 cm in-between. Two harvests were performed on 15^th June and 20^th September. Results show that germination percentage varied between 30 to 80%. The highest percentage of germination was obtained when seeds were sown in February and March in the S3 soil medium. The germination percentage in this respect reached up to 70% and 80%³⁸. Row width density spacing combinations were established to provide information on cultural management. There were three row widths (45, 90 and 135 cm) and three intra-row spacings (30, 60 and 90 cm). It is established that plant size was greatly affected by plant spacing. Uniform plant spacing of 90×90 cm produced significantly more flowers³⁶. In addition, use of several organic mulches (oat straw, a flax straw mat and nonwoven wool mat) in comparison to positive (hand-weeded) and negative (non-weeded) controls, it is established that N. cataria plant height was significantly greater in the oat straw than the other treatments. However, there was no significant weed management treatment effect on the concentration of the nepetalactones⁴¹. Substrate moisture (50, 125 and 250 hPa) had a considerable effect on herbal yield of N. cataria var. citriodora. In addition, draught stress influenced the essential oil content, i.e. 50 hPa provided high yield of essential oil⁴². In Poland recommendation for fertilization is: 100 kg/ha N, 80 kg/ha P₂O₅ and 120 kg/ha K₂O⁴³. Investigation on the impact of different nitrogen concentrations in nutrient solution (50, 150 and 300 mg/l) on herbal yield and content and composition of essential oil of N. cataria var. citriodora found that concentration of 300 mg/l was effective for herbal yield and favorable for maximum yield of essential oil. Furthermore, the essential oil composition was mainly affected by tested nitrogen concentrations⁴⁴. The growth measurements of N. cataria plants during the growth season in Egypt showed that the fresh yield of N. cataria herb recorded 138.5 and 180.0 g/plant in the first and the second cut, respectively. Dry yield per hectare in this respect recorded 1.98 and 2.77 t/ha. The total yield of dry weight from two cuts was 4.75 t/ha in both harvests. The highest percentage of oil recorded (0.25%) during the first cut, against 0.19% in second cut³⁸. Devastating effects of injurious insect-pests and diseases in N. cataria are not only harmful for the plant but also impair the quality of the produce, thus hampering its medicinal value⁴⁵. One bacterial disease and one insect pest that affect this plant has been recorder. Xantomonas leaf spot (Xantomonas campestris) is a disease recorded in California. Symptoms consist of small brown flecks that are visible from both sides of the leaf. The flecks later develop into larger, dark brown, angular spots ⁴⁶. The feeding insects of small leafhopper Eupteryx melissae cause characteristic yellowish-white discoloration of the leaves and injury to the plants^47-50.

MORPHOLOGY

N. cataria grows to a height of 25 to 40 cm. The stem is opaque, hairy, and grey. The leaves are opposite, stalked, heart-shaped, incise-serrate, pointed, hairy underneath and 5 to 7.5 cm long. The flowers are calyx tubular, white with purple markings, approximately 0.5 to 1 cm long and arranged in compact spikes. The entire plant is harvested when in flower, which occurs from June to September. It has a mint like taste and odor and is strongly scented^51-54.

MICROSCOPY 

Leaf: dorsiventral; transaction shows single layer of epidermis present on both upper and lower surfaces, leaf  bearing glandular and non-glandular trichomes and caryophyllaceous stomata , stomata less frequent on upper surface. Non glandular trichomes are 3-4 cells long and uniseriate. Glandula trichomes are of 2 types: (a) small having unicellular head and unicellular stalk and (b) 4-celled head and unicellular stalk. Mesophyll is differentiated into 2-layered palisade and 4-6 layered spongy parenchyma. Midrib much pronounced towards lower surface, 2 layers of collenchyma present below both upper and lower epidermis in midrib region; vascular bundle in conjoint, collateral and arc shaped.

Petiole: transaction shows single layered epidermis with trichomes as in lamina; 2-3 layers of collenchyma present below epidermis; cortext parenchymatous; a comparatively large conjoint, collateral vascular bundle is present in the centre and flanked by two smaller bundles in the two projecting arm-like structures.

Stem: in transaction rectangular in shape with projecting corners; epidermis single layered with glandular and non-glandular trichomes as in lamina; ridges contain 6-8 layers of collechyma; cortex parenchymatous; pericycle is represented by pateches of sclerenchyma; xylem present in a continuous ring but narrowed at the furrows; phloem present beneath pericyclic patches; pith parenchymatous and having a central is hollow^55-59.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Chemical analysis of the air dried flowering aerial parts of N. cataria showed 6.2% of moisture, 7.9% of ash, 15.6% crude fiber, 9.1% crude protein, 4.9% crude lipids and 62.5% carbohydrate. Fixed oil extracted from the air dried flowering aerial parts of N. cataria contained palmitic (20.3%), stearic (18.6%), oleic (14.2%), palmitoleic (9.6%), linoleic (9.3%), myristic (7.2%), linolenic (5.8%), arachidic (4.1%) and lauric (3.7%) acids. Unsaponifiable matter components are: henetricontane (26.0%), β-sitosterol (18.6%), hexacosane (10.2%), stigmasterol (8.9%) nonacosane (6.8%), campesterol (6.5%), α-tocopherol (5.3%), dodcane (4.0%), dotriacontane (3.0%) and pentacosane (0.8%)^60-74.The aromatic volatiles are produced in the glandular trichomes on the leaf epidermis. Essential oil of N. cataria is a colorless, mobile liquid with a pleasant herb-citrus aroma with tones of geraniums^75-81. The main essential oil constituents of catmint were nepetalactones, geraniol and α-pinene, while nerol, citronellal, neral and caryophyllene oxide were the main constituents of lemon catnip^52,82. Nepetalactones are a specific type of monoterpene known as iridoids. The stereochemical variation of the nepetalactones is contributed to the biosynthetic pathway. Four nepetalactone stereoisomers with differing stereochemistry at the 4α and 7α positions are observed at different rations in various Nepeta species (referred to as Z,Z-, Z,E-, E,Z- and E,E-)^{53, 83}. However, metabolism of nepetalactone by N. cataria plants yielded a significant amount of dihydronepetalactone that were bound to plant components⁵⁴. Also, nepetalactone was labeled from either nerol or citronellol^{55, 84}. In the wild N. cataria essential oil from 45 compounds were isolated, and the chemical composition varies little during its life cycle. Essential oil is mostly composed of citronellal, neral, geranial, citronellol, nerol and geraniol. Small amounts of other oxygenated monoterpenes were isolated, while sesquiterpenes were β-caryophyllene and α-humulene. No nepetalactone were found in the oil. This may be explained by the variation of chemical composition during the hydrodistillation. In addition, drying the plant material before distillation did not affect the composition^{85, 86}.The composition of N. cataria essential oil at different growth stages (vegetative, floral budding, full flowering and fruit settings) shows that nepetalactones were the major constituents of all growth stages^{57, 87}. There are noted seasonal variations of volatile compounds from different N. cataria plant tissues (stems, leaves and flowers). In the flower oil 65 components were recorded with sesquiterpenes as the dominant component (54.8%), while the leaf oil before and during flowering contains mainly monoterpenes (54.6% and 94.0%, respectively), with Z,E-nepetalactone as the most abundant components. As for the stem oil the dominant were acids. For instance, the aroma of fresh herb changes after drying due to losses of the most volatile constituents and consequently green aroma notes. In addition, differences in the quantitative composition of volatile compounds isolated by the different techniques were considerable^{20, 88}. The changes in the essential oil composition were observed across harvests suggesting that ecological factors during growth stages may play a major role. Various drying methods had a significant effect on the essential oil content and composition^{58, 89}. Research conducted in Poland confirmed that the essential oil of N. cataria var. citriodora is rich in monoterpene alcohols citronellol and geraniol, and the monoterpene aldehydes neral and geranial. The yield from steam distillation was better than that from hydro distillation, but lower concentrations of neral and geranial were obtained. Total monoterpene aldehydes were higher altering hydrodistillation whereas steam distillation gave oil richer in monoterpene alcohols^{59, 90}. Apart of essential oil, N. cataria contain non-volatile compounds. 

TRADITIONAL USES

The knowledge of traditional usage of any plant has been very important in order to attract different research groups belonging to different fields of science with an aim to get more and more and to explore extensive application of research plant in human well-being. N. cataria has a long history of association with the traditional medicine practices of the peoples of different tribes and countries^{8, 91}. The French peoples used young leaves and shoots of N. cataria for seasoning. England’s public hangmen chewed this plant while performing their duties due to its hallucinogenic properties. The tea prepared from its leaves traditionally has been used as soporific and sedative and against gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases, viz. diarrhea, asthma, cough, bronchitis, etc.^{6, 12, 92}. Many Indian tribes from North America and Chippewa used leaves of this plant to prepare herbal tea. Iroquois, Cherokee, and Okanagan-Colville Indian tribes used this plant as a remedy to cure colds, coughs, and stomach upsets. On the other hand, Iroquois Indian tribes took this plant for the treatment of diarrhea, vomiting, sore throats, and headaches. Menominee peoples used this plant to induce sweating and for the cure of pneumonia, Rappahannock for pain relief, and Cherokee for ease of fever and blood and female disorders. Further Cherokee Indians took this plant for the treatment of convulsions, boils, and worms and Shinnecock used dried leaves for smoking to cure rheumatism⁹³. Furthermore, flowering tops and dried leaves have been aromatic in nature and therapeutically used as diaphoretic, carminative, tonic, antiseptic, emmenagogue, refrigerant, soporific, and stimulant and against tooth ache in traditional medicine system. 

Other biological and medicinal properties of N. cataria are the following:

• The extract isolated from N. cataria showed inhibitory activity on growth, production,and adhesion of enzyme and some bacteria. Juvenile hormone activity has also been reported from catnip plant extract.
• N. cataria has been employed traditionally for the cure of painful swellings in English folk medicine.
• Fresh or dried scented flowering tops and leaves have been used in soups and cheese and as flavoring agents particularly for cooked foods and sauces and in medicine.
• It has been used in the production of insect pheromones and a part of strategies for insect pest management.
• It has been used in popular medicine, dyes, and teas in North America.
• This plant has promoted sweating and has also been useful against insomnia, colds, flu, and fevers when taken as hot infusion. Further, it has been supposed to be helpful in allaying morning sickness and preventing miscarriage and premature birth.

Apart from these N. cataria showed many biological activities, viz. anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive activity, antimicrobial, antifungal activity, antioxidant activity, anthelmintic activity, cytotoxic activity, felineattractant activity, insect repellent, insecticidal activity, nematicidal activity, spasmolytic, bronchodilatory activities and trypanocidal activity⁹⁴.

Reported pharmacological activities of N. cataria

Insect Repellent, Attractant, and Insecticidal Activity

The essential oil isolated from different parts of N. cataria has been reported to protect well from several insect pests, cockroaches, and many mosquito species, which transmit several diseases^120-124. Further, essential oil obtained from catmint plant repels about 13 families of insects¹²⁵. Peterson and Coats (2001) reported that the E,Z-isomer of nepetalactone obtained from catnip oil has been more active in comparison to Z,E-isomer and DEET (N,N-diethyl-3- methylbenzamide) as insect repellent¹²⁰. Schultz et al. (2004) evaluated catnip essential oil for its repellence activity against houseflies (Musca domestica) and American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana) and found that catnip essential oil has been good and in some cases better repellent as compared to citronellal or DEET. Catnip essential oil has shown more repellent activity than citronellal and DEET in the short-term bioassay¹²¹. Further, Chauhan et al. (2005) observed that compounds isolated from catnip oil have showed greater bite deterrence effect as compared to ethanol control against yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti), whereas racemic nepetalactone and their individual isomers have showed less effective deterrence effect as compared to DEET or (1S,2’S)-2-methylpiperidinyl-3-cyclohexene- 1-carboxamide (SS220) against biting of A. aegypti¹²⁶. Amer and Mehlhorn (2006) tested the essential oil of catnip for its repellent activity and protection potential using the skin of human volunteers against yellow fever mosquito. The oil has shown protection time of 8 h with 100% repellent potential against all three tested species⁹⁶. Gonzalez and Hallahan (2007) observed that dihydronepetalactone minor component of catnip essential oil has been more stable and has pleasant fragrance as compared to nepetalactone. Further, it has shown insect repellent activity with improved properties as compared to nepetalactone and in some cases this activity exceeded than synthetic compound DEET¹²⁸.

SAFETY AND TOXICITY

Zhu et al. (2009) evaluated catnip (N. cataria) essential oil for its dermal, acute oral, primary dermal, eye irritation, and inhalation toxicity¹²⁹. 

Acute Oral Toxicity

Catnip oil has not caused any mortality and also not even induced any toxicity in treated male and female mice when exposed to a dose of 1000–2150 mg/kg BW (body weight) with exception of death of one male mouse. The study revealed that the catnip oil has showed medium lethal dose (LD50) at 2710 mg/kg BW in case of male and 3160 mg/kg BW in case of female mice.

Acute Dermal Toxicity

The test for acute dermal toxicity using single dose of catnip oil (5000 mg/kg BW) on Wistar rats showed that all rats have survived and remained active after the testing. It revealed that the catnip oil has not shown any acute dermal toxicity and no major abnormalities have been observed in any of the tested animals. The catnip oil has showed acute dermal LD50 >5000 mg/kg BW.

Acute Inhalation Toxicity

The catnip oil when applied at a concentration of 10 g/m3 to a group of mice has showed no toxicity effect and abnormalities in treated animals after two weeks. For acute inhalation LC50 >10 g/m3 has been observed in case of both sexes of mice.

Primary Skin Irritation

No signs of erythema or edema have been observed in four New Zealand white rabbits during first two days of the application at a dose of 0.5 g of catnip oil. On the third day of application minor erythema has been reported in one animal on the treated area, but in case of other animals it has been observed on fourth day. However no edema and skin irritation have been observed in case of any tested animals during the whole testing period.

Primary Eye Irritation

The catnip oil has not been exhibiting any signs of corneal opacity and iritis on three tested rabbits. During the first hour of test, conjunctival irritation has been observed, but it has not persisted for twenty four hours. During the testing period no gross toxicity signs have been observed in tested animals^130-136.

FUTURE PROSPECTIVE

It has been reported by different research groups that the different extracts obtained from N. cataria have showed prominent anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, cytotoxic, anthelmintic, nematicidal, trypanocidal, spasmolytic, and bronchodilatory activity, but only a few papers have been published on these topics. Apart from these many species of genus Nepeta, viz. N. juncea, N. hindostana, N. pannonica, N. nuda ssp. albiflora, etc., have been known to show prominent vasorelaxant, platelet aggregation, anti-atherosclerotic, and phytotoxic activity. These species have comparable chemical composition to N. cataria. So, there has been remarkable scope for exploring ethnopharmacology of N. cataria. Nepetalactone and related iridoid compounds having 1-R configuration have acted as sex pheromones in many species of aphids, viz. Megoura viciae, greenbug (Schizaphis graminum), pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), black bean aphid (Aphis fabae), bird-cherry aphid (Rhopalosiphum pad), peach-potato aphid (Myzus persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), and hop aphid (Phorodon humuli). Due to these aforementioned properties of nepetalactone and related compounds, there has been a great opportunity to use these compounds in integrated pest management strategies for the control of different harmful insect pest species, as this is the need of present world to explore the new compounds for this purpose due to the resistance developed by the insect pests against different chemicals used in present time. Further nepetalactone and its derivatives have been well known for their insect repellent properties. Iridoid compounds have acted as a key intermediate for the synthesis of different kinds of alkaloids, i.e., secologanin monoterpene glycoside has been the chief compound in the alkaloid biosynthesis. Iridoid loganin has acted as the biosynthetic precursor for the synthesis of secologanin. Nepetalactone and its isomers can act as the precursors for the synthesis of loganin and hence for the synthesis of different kinds of alkaloids. This opens the new field for the synthetic chemists for the synthesis of useful alkaloids from the precursor which have not been of amino acid origin. Apart from these essential oils and different extracts obtained from N. cataria may find many applications in cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and agrochemical industries⁶³.

CONCLUSION

Although many pharmacologically active secondary metabolites have been discovered so for, yet the nature must have many more in her basket. So, a detailed and systematic study is required in order to identify and document the plants, which have been pharmacologically important and provided a variety of secondary metabolites of biological importance. N. cataria has been a representative species of genus Nepeta, which belongs to family Lamiaceae. The plant has been known for its wide range of traditional usages and used to relieve pain, and for the cure of different gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments, female disorders, pneumonia, rheumatism, etc. The chemical diversity of N. cataria has mainly been represented by terpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and steroids; out of these iridoid compounds (unique class of terpenoids) such as nepetalactone and its derivatives have been the representative chemical constituents of this plant and genus Nepeta. These chemical constituents have been chiefly responsible for the numerous biological activities shown by the plant, out of which their anti-inflammatory, antidiabetics, antioxidant, and insecticidal have been the most outstanding. Further, the toxicological studies of this plant have revealed that the essential oils and different extracts obtained from the plant have mostly been nontoxic in nature. In spite of this, there have been numerous areas of its usage in traditional medicine system that still need pharmacological justification. This review would be supportive in the enhancement of today’s research in the development of new biologically potent compounds derived from plants (of genus Nepeta) and which would find many applications in the well-being of mankind.

REFERENCES

1. Firenzuol F, Gori L. Herbal medicine today: clinical and research issues. Evid Based Complementary Altern Med., 2007; 4 (1):37-40. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem096

2. Vohra A, Kaur H. Chemical investigation of medicinal plant Ajuga bracteosa, J Nat Prod Plant Resou., 2011; 1 (1):37-45.

3. Acimovic M, Zeremski T, Kiprovski B, Brdar-Jokanovic M, Popovic V, Koren A, Sikora V. Nepeta cataria - cultivation, chemical composition and biological activity.J Agron Technol Eng Manag., 2021; 4(4):620-634.

4. Rapisarda A, Galati EM, Tzakou O, Flores M, Miceli N. (Nepeta sibthorpii Bentham (Lamiaceae): micromorphological analysis of leaves and flowers. Farmaco 2001; 56:413-415 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-827X(01)01050-3

5. Dabiri M, Sefidkon F. Composition of essential oil of Nepeta crassifolia Boiss Buhse. Flav Fragr., 2003; J 18:157-158. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1151

6. Formisano C, Rigano D, Senatore F. Chemical constituents and biological activities of Nepeta species. Chem Biodivers., 2011; 8:1783-1818. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.201000191

7. Aggarwal BB, Sundaram C, Malani N, Ichikawa H. Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. Adv Exp Med Biol., 2007; 595:71-75

8. Sharma A, Cannoo DS. Phytochemical composition of essential oils isolated from different species of genus Nepeta of Labiatae family: A review. Pharmacophore., 2013; 4:181-201.

9. Tepe B, Daferera D, Tepe AS, Polissiou M, Sokmen A. Antioxidant activity of the essential oil and various extracts of Nepeta flavida Hub. Mor from Turkey. Food Chem., 2007; 103:1358-1364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.10.049

10. Edewor TI, Usman LA. Phytochemical and antibacterial activities of leaf extracts of Nepeta cataria. Afr J Pure Appl Chem., 2011; 5:503-506. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPAC11.074

11. Sharma A, Cannoo DS. Comparative evaluation of extraction solvents/techniques for antioxidant potential and phytochemical composition from roots of Nepeta leucophylla and quantification of polyphenolic constituents by RP-HPLC-DAD. Food Measure., 2016; 10(3):658-669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-016-9349-5

12. Baser KHC, Kirimer N, Kurkcuoglu M, Demirci B. Essential oils of Nepeta species growing in Turkey. Chem Nat Compd., 2000; 36:356-359. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002832628159

13. Manju M, Satish S, Sabaraya AR. A review on pharmacological activities of essential oil in Nepeta cataria. Int J Pharma Chem Res., 2019; 5:14-17.

14. Awasthi A, Gulati M, Kumar B, Kaur J, Vishwas S, Khursheed R, Porwal O, Alam A, Kr A, Corrie L, Kumar R. Recent progress in development of dressings used for diabetic wounds with special emphasis on scaffolds. BioMed Res Int., 2022; 4:2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1659338

15. Ramanunny AK, Wadhwa S, Gulati M, Vishwas S, Khursheed R, Paudel KR, Gupta S, Porwal O, Alshahrani SM, Jha NK, Chellappan DK. Journey of Alpiniagalanga from kitchen spice to nutraceutical to folk medicine to nanomedicine. J Ethnopharmacol., 2022; 12(291):115-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115144

16. Porwal O. Box behnken design based formulation optimization and characterization of spray dried rutin loaded nanosuspension: state of the art. South African J Bot., 2022; 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.04.028

17. Sherry CJ, Koontz JA. Pharmacologistic studies of "Catnip tea": the hot water extract of Nepeta cataria. Quart J Crude Drug Res., 1979; 17: 68-72. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880207909067451

18. Small E. Blossoming treasures of biodiversity: 39. Catnip - safer pesticide potential. Biodiversity., 2012;13: 118-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2012.679879

19. Reichert W, Park CH, Juliani RH, Simon JE. ʻCR9ʼ: A new highly aromaric catnip Nepeta cataria L. cultivar rich in Z,E-nepetalactone. Hort Sci., 2016; 51: 588-591. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.51.5.588

20. Bol S, Caspers J, Buckingham L, Anderson-Shelton GD, Ridgway C, Buffington T, Schulz S, Bunnik E. Responsiveness of cats (Felidae) to silver vine (Actinidia polygama), Tatarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and catnip (Nepeta cataria). BMC Vet Res., 2017; 13: 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-0987-6

21. Singh CL, Verma S, Singh A, Jha R, Porwal O, Fuloria N, Sharma PK. Development and validation of stability indicating high performance liquid chromatography method for related substances of imatinib mesylate. Indian J PharmaSci., 2022; 84(2):465-76. https://doi.org/10.36468/pharmaceutical-sciences.940

22. Vishwas S, Singh SK, Gulati M, Awasthi A, Khursheed R, Corrie L, Kumar R, Collet T, Loebenberg R, Porwal O, Gupta S. Harnessing the therapeutic potential of fisetin and its nanoparticles: Journey so far and road ahead. Chem-Biol Interact., 2022; 356:1098-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109869

23. Kaur J, Gulati M, Singh SK, Kuppusamy G, Kapoor B, Mishra V, Gupta S, Arshad MF, Porwal O, Jha NK, Chaitanya MV. Discovering multifaceted role of vanillic acid beyond flavours: Nutraceutical and therapeutic potential. Trends Food SciTech., 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2022.02.023

24. Porwal O, Kala D. A Review on medicinal plants in dentistry. J Drug Deliv Ther., 2021; 11(6):332-40. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i6.5128

25. Porwal O, Ozdemir M, Kala D, Anwer ET. A review on medicinal plants as potential sources of natural immunomodulatory action. J Drug Deliv Ther., 2021; 11(6):324-31. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i6.5125

26. Peterson C, Coats J. Insect repellents. Past, present and future. Pestic Outlook.2001; 12:154-158.https://doi.org/10.1039/b106296b

27. Peterson CJ, Nemetz LT, Jones LM, Coat JR. Behavioral activity of catnip (Lamiaceae) essential oil components to the German cockroach (Blattodea: Blattellidae). J Econ Entomol., 2002; 95:377-380. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-95.2.377

28. Baranauskiene R, Venskutonis RP, Demyttenaere JCR. Sensory and instrumental evaluation of catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) aroma. J Agric Food Chem., 2003; 51:3840-3848. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf021187b

29. Herron S. Catnip, Nepeta cataria, a morphological comparison of mutant and wild type specimens to gain an ethnobotanical perspective. Econ Bot., 2003; 57:135-142. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0135:CNCAMC]2.0.CO;2

30. Peterson CJ, Ems-Wilson J .Catnip essential oil as a barrier to subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in the laboratory. J Econ Entomol., 2003; 96:1275-1282. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/96.4.1275

31. Chauhan KR, Klun JA, Debboun M, Kramer M. Feeding deterrent effects of catnip oil components compared with two synthetic amides against Aedes aegypti., J Med Entomol., 2005; 42:643-646. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/42.4.643

32. Sharma P, Bajaj S, Fuloria S, Porwal O, Subramaniyan V. Ethnomedicinal and pharmacological uses of curcuma caesia. Nat Volatiles Essent Oils. 2021; 24:14902-10.

33. Porwal O, Nee JL, Fuloria S. Response of hydroalcoholic extract of plumeriaalba leaves against periodontal disease triggering microbiota. Nat Volatiles Essent Oils. 2021; 24:14895-901.

34. Amer A, Mehlhorn H. Persistency of larvicidal effects of plant oils under different storage conditions. Parasitol Res., 2006; 99:478-490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-006-0184-1

35. Sudhakar K, Fuloria S, Subramaniyan V, Sathasivam KV, Azad AK, Swain SS, Sekar M, Karupiah S, Porwal O, Sahoo A, Meenakshi DU. Ultraflexible liposome nanocargo as a dermal and transdermal drug delivery system. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(10):2557. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11102557

36. Khan TA, Azad AK, Fuloria S, Nawaz A, Subramaniyan V, Akhlaq M, Safdar M, Sathasivam KV, Sekar M, Porwal O, Meenakshi DU. Chitosan-coated 5-fluorouracil incorporated emulsions as transdermal drug delivery matrices. Polymers. 2021; 13(19):3345. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193345

37. Anwar ET, Gupta N, Porwal O, Sharma A, Malviya R, Singh A, Fuloria NK. Skin diseases and their treatment strategies in sub-saharan african regions. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2021: 27. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871526521666210927120334

38. Dudhe AC, Dudhe R, Porwal O, Katole G. An Overview of synthesis and biological activity of dihydropyrimidine derivatives. Mini Rev Med Chem., 2021; 20. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557521666210920120457

39. Malviya R, Sundram S, Fuloria S, Subramaniyan V, Sathasivam KV, Azad AK, Sekar M, Kumar DH, Chakravarthi S, Porwal O, Meenakshi DU. Evaluation and characterization of tamarind gum polysaccharide: the biopolymer. Polymers. 2021; 13(18):3023. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183023

40. Zimmermann N, Hilgraf R, Lehmann L, Ibarra D, Francke W. Stereoselective synthesis of trans-fused iridoid lactones and their identification in the parasitoid wasp Alloxysta victrix, Part I: Dihydronepetalactones. Beilstein J Org Chem., 2012; 8:1246-1255. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjoc.8.140

41. Modnicki D, Tokar M, Klimek B. Flavonoids and phenolic acids of Nepeta cataria var. citriodora (Becker) balb. (Lamiaceae). Acta Pol Pharm., 2007; 64:247-252.

42. Porwal O, Malviya R, Ameen MSM, Anwar ET, Sharma A. A review on effect of various parameters on the rheological behaviour, thermal properties and viscosity of potato starch. Curr Mater Sci., 2022; 15(1):10-20. https://doi.org/10.2174/2666145414666210521214130

43. Malviya R, Jha S, Fuloria NK, Subramaniyan V, Chakravarthi S, Sathasivam K, Kumari U, Meenakshi DU, Porwal O, Sharma A, Kumar DH. Determination of temperature-dependent coefficients of viscosity and surface tension of tamarind seeds (tamarindusindica l.) polymer. Polymers. 2021; 13(4):610. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13040610

44. Jamila N, Ullah R, Alwahsh MAA, Haider S, Wong KC, Ullah Z. Secondary metabolites from Nepeta juncea. Afr J Biotechnol., 2011; 10:17884-17886. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB11.1447

45. Porwal O, Kala D. A Review on medicinal plants in dentistry. J Drug Deliv Ther., 2021; 11(6):332-40. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i6.5128

46. Porwal O, Ozdemir M, Kala D, Anwer ET. A review on medicinal plants as potential sources of natural immunomodulatory action. J Drug Deliv Ther., 2021; 11(6):324-31. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i6.5125

47. Ramanunny AK, Wadhwa S, Gulati M, Gupta S, Porwal O, Jha NK, Gupta PK, Kumar D, Prasher P, Dua K, Al Saqr A. Development and validation of RP-HPLC method for 1΄-Acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA) and its application in optimizing the yield of ACA during its isolation from Alpiniagalanga extract as well as its quantification in nanoemulsion. South African J Bot., 2021; 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2021.10.012

48. Sajjadi SE. Analysis of the essential oil of Nepeta sintenisii Bornm. from Iran. Daru. 2005; 13:61-64.

49. Rather MA, Hassan T, Dar BA, Shawl AS, Qurishi MA, Ganai BA. Essential oil composition of Nepeta raphanorhiza Benth growing in Kashmir valley. Rec Nat Prod., 2012; 6:67-70.

50. Ameen MS, Malviya R, Porwal O, Anwar ET, Pant S, Sharma A. Novel strategies and model studies for colon targeted drug delivery. Drug Deliv Lett., 2021; 11(2):156-63. https://doi.org/10.2174/2210303111666210118141406

51. Malviya R, Raj S, Fuloria S, Subramaniyan V, Sathasivam K, Kumari U, Meenakshi DU, Porwal O, Kumar DH, Singh A, Chakravarthi S. Evaluation of antitumor efficacy of chitosan-tamarind gum polysaccharide polyelectrolyte complex stabilized nanoparticles of simvastatin. Int J Nanomed., 2021; 16:2533. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S300991

52. Porwal O, Singh SK, Patel DK, Gupta S, Tripathi R, Katekhaye S. Cultivation, collection and processing of medicinal plants bioactive phytochemicals. Drug Discov Prod Develop., 2020:14-30. https://doi.org/10.2174/9789811464485120010005

53. Sharma A, Cannoo DS. Phytochemical composition of essential oils isolated from different species of genus Nepeta of Labiatae family: A review. Pharmacophore.2013; 4:181-201.

54. Vishwas S, Gulati M, Kapoor B, Gupta S, Singh SK, Awasthi A, Khan A, Goyal A, Bansal A, Baishnab S, Singh TG. Expanding the arsenal against Huntington's disease-Herbal drugs and their nanoformulations. Curr Neuropharmacol., 2021; 19(7):957-89. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X18666201109090824

55. Sood A, Kumar B, Singh SK, Prashar P, Gautam A, Gulati M, Pandey NK, Melkani I, Awasthi A, Saraf SA, Vidari G. Flavonoids as potential therapeutic agents for the management of diabetic neuropathy. Curr Pharma Design., 2020; 26(42):5468-87. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612826666200826164322

56. Kaur G, Singh SK, KumarR, Kumar B, Kumari Y, Gulati M, Porwal O. Development of modified apple polysaccharide capped silver nanoparticles loaded with mesalamine for effective treatment of ulcerative colitis. J Drug DelivSciTechnol., 2020; 60: 101980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101980

57. https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/NEPCA

58. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catnip

59. Sharma A, Cooper R, Bhardwaj G, Cannoo DS. The genus Nepeta: Traditional uses, phytochemicals andpharmacological properties. J Ethnopharmacol., 2021; 268:113679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113679

60. Small E. Catnip-safer pesticide potential. Biodiversity., 2012; 13 (2):118-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2012.679879

61. Sih A, Baltus MS. Patch size, pollinator behaviour and pollinator limitation in catnip. Ecology.1987; 68:1679-1690 https://doi.org/10.2307/1939860

62. Kumar R, Gulati M, Singh SK, Sharma D, Porwal O. Road from nose to brain for treatment of alzheimer: the bumps and humps. cns & neurological disorders. CurDrug Targets-CNS Neurol Disord., 2020; 19(9):663-75. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527319666200708124726

63. Singh S, Singh SK, Kumar B, Kaur B, Khursheed R, Gulati M, Pandey NK, Prabhakar PK, Baghel DS, Porwal O, Awasthi A. Effect of co-administration of herbal extracts with copper nanoparticles: a novel two-pronged approach in treating type 2 diabetes. Rec Innovat Chem Engrg. 2020; 13(5):366-78. https://doi.org/10.2174/2405520413999200719140819

64. Pan Z, Hebert SJ. Plant spacings for maximizing flower production of catnip. UMass Amherst, Res Reports. 1996; 3:9-10.

65. Duda S, Marghitas L, Dezmirean D, Bobis O, Duda M. Nepeta cataria - medicinal plant of interest in phytotherapy and beekeeping. Hop Med Plants., 2014; 22: 34-38.

66. Ibrahim ME, El-Sawi SA, Ibrahim FM. Nepeta cataria L, one of the promising aromatic plants in Egypt: seed germination, growth and essential oil production. J Mater Environ Sci., 2017; 8:1990-1995.

67. Banerjee M, Khursheed R, Yadav AK, Singh SK, Gulati M, Pandey DK, Prabhakar PK, Kumar R, Porwal O, Awasthi A, Kumari Y. A systematic review on synthetic drugs and phytopharmaceuticals used to manage diabetes. CurrDiabetes Rev., 2020; 16(4):340-56. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573399815666190822165141

68. Ghosh D, Singh SK, Khursheed R, Pandey NK, Kumar B, Kumar R, Kumari Y, Kaur G, Clarisse A, Awasthi A, Gulati M. Impact of solidification on micromeritic properties and dissolution rate of self-nanoemulsifying delivery system loaded with docosahexaenoic acid. Drug Develop Indust Pharma., 2020; 46(4):597-605. https://doi.org/10.1080/03639045.2020.1742143

69. Hussain FH, Amin HI, Patel DK, Porwal O. An overview of the therapeutic potential of Iris persica. Curr Tradit Med., 2021; 7(2):152-60. https://doi.org/10.2174/2215083806666200117111320

70. Gomes EN, Reichert W, Vasilatis AA, Allen KA, Wu Q, Simon JE. Essential oil yield and aromatic profile of lemon catnip and lemon-scented catnip selections at different harvesting times. J Med Act Plants., 2020; 9: 21-33.

71. Asgari M, Nasiri M, Jafari AA, Hoseini LF. Investigation of chilling effects on characteristics of seed germination, vigor and seedling growth of Nepeta spp. species. J Rangel Sci., 2015; 5:313-324.

72. Duppong LM, Delate K, Liebman M, Horton R, Romero F, Kraus G, Petrich J, Chowdbury PK. The effect of natural mulches on crop performance, weed suppression and biochemical constituents of catnip and St. John's wort. Crop Sci., 2004; 44:861-869. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2004.8610

73. Manukyan A. Effect of growing factors on productivity and quality of lemon catmint, lemon balm and sage under soilless greenhouse production: I. Draught stress. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol., 2011; 5:119-125.

74. Wieteska A, Jadczak D, Wesolowska A. Comparison of the biological value of selected catnip plants (Nepeta sp.). Academia J Med Plants., 2018;6:191-195.

75. Manukyan A. Effect of growing factors on productivity and quality of lemon catmint, lemon balm and sage under soilless greenhouse production: II. Nitrogen stress. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol., 2011; 5:126-132.

76. Rehaman SK, Pradeep S, Dhanapal R, Chandrashekara GV. Survey studies on insect-pests associated with important medicinal plants in Shivamogga, Karnataka. J Entomol Zool Stud., 2018; 6:848-857.

77. Koike S, Azad H, Cooksey D. Xanthomonas leaf spot of catnip: a new disease caused by a pathovar of Xanthomonas campestris. Plant Dis., 2001; 85:1157-1159. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2001.85.11.1157

78. Leonard MD, Barber GW. The immature stages of the catnip leaf-hopper (Eupteryx melissae Curtis). J N Y Entomol Soc., 1923; 31:181-184.

79. Jeff Grognet. Catnip: Its uses and effects, past and present. Can Vet J., 1990; 31: 455-456.

80. Sarkar M,Rashmi R, Vikramaditya, Varma PN.Pharmacognosy of nepeta cataria. Anc Sci Life. 1995; XIV:225-234

81. Motawe HM, Ibrahim FM, Ibrahim ME, Mahmoud EA, Aly HF. Isolation and identification of terpenoids and sterols of Nepeta cataria L. Int J Pharmtech Res.,2015; 8:10-17.

82. Frolova N, Uktainets A, Korablova O, Voitsekhivskyi V. Plants of Nepeta cataria var. citriodora Beck. and essential oils from them for food industry. Slovak J Food Sci., 2019; 13:449-455. https://doi.org/10.5219/1109

83. Said-Al Ahl H, Naguib NY, Hussein MS. Evaluation growth and essential oil content of catmint and lemon catnip plants as new cultivated medicinal plants in Egypt. Ann Agric Sci., 2018; 63:201-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2018.11.005

84. Sherden NH, Lichman B, Caputi L, Zhao D, Kamileen MO, Buell CR, O'Connor SE. Identification of iridoid synthethases from Nepeta species: iridoid cyclization does not determine nepetalactone stereochemistry. Phytochem., 2018; 145:48-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.10.004

85. Waller GR, Johnson RD. Metabolism of nepetalactone and related compounds in Nepeta cataria L. and components of its bound essential oil. Proc Okla Acad Sci., 1984; 64: 49-56.

86. Bellesia F, Grandi R, Pagnoni UM, Pinetti A, Trave R. Biosynthesis of nepetalactone in Nepeta cataria. Phytochem., 1984;23: 83-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(84)83082-4

87. Chalchat JC, Lamy J. Chemical composition of the essential oil isolated from wild catnip Nepeta cataria L. cv. citriodora from the Drome region of France. J Essent Oil Res., 1997; 9: 527-532. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.1997.9700770

88. Zomorodian K, Saharkhiz MJ, Rahimi MJ, Shariatifard S, Pakshir K, Khashei R. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oil of Nepeta cataria L. against common causes of oral infections. J Dent (Tehran)., 2013; 10: 329-337.

89. Mohammadizad HA, Mehrafarin A, Badi NH. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of essential oil of catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) under different drying conditions. J Med Plants. 2017; 16: 8-20.

90. Wesolowska A, Jadzak D, Grzeszczuk M. GC-MS analysis of lemon catnip (Nepeta cataria L. var. citriodora Balbis) essential oil. Acta Chromatogr., 2011; 23: 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1556/AChrom.23.2011.1.12

91. Kafaru EO. Simple ways of staying healthy. Elikaf Health Services Ltd, 1994; pp 32-33.

92. Shafaghat A, Oji K. Nepetalactone content and antibacterial activity of the essential oils from different parts of Nepeta persica. Nat Prod Commun., 2010; 5:625-628 https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1000500427

93. Sue Eland (2008) Catmint. http://www.plantlives.com/docs/N/Nepeta_cataria.pdf

94. Sharma A, Nayik GK, Cannoo DS. Pharmacology and toxicology of nepeta cataria (catmint) species of genus nepeta: a review. Ozturk M, Hakeem KR (eds.), Plant and Human Health, Volume 3, Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019; 285-299. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04408-4_13

95. Ricci EL, Toyama DO, Lago JHG, Romoff P, Kirsten TB, Reis-Silva TM, Bernardi MM. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory actions of Nepeta cataria L. var. citriodora (Becker) Balb essential oil in mice. J Health Sci Inst., 2010; 28:289-293.

96. William R, Villani T, Min-Hsiung P, Chi-Tang H, Simon JE, Wu Q.phytochemical analysis and anti-inflammatory activity of nepeta cataria accessions. J MedActive Plants. 2018; 7(1):19-27.

97. Suschke U, Sporer F, Schneele J, Geiss HK, Reichling J. Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Nepeta cataria L., N. cataria var. citriodora (Beck.) Balb and Melissa officinalis L. essential oils. Nat Prod Commun., 2007; 2:1277-1286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X0700201218

98. Fan J, Bao Y, Meng X, Wang S, Li T, Chang X, Yang G, Bo T.Mechanism of modulation through PI3K-AKT pathway about Nepeta cataria L.'s extract in non-small cell lung cancer. Oncotarget. 2017; 8(19): 31395-31405. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.15608

99. Nostro A, Cannatelli MA, Crisafi G, Alonzo V. The effect of Nepeta cataria extract on adherence and enzyme production of Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2001; 18:583-585. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-8579(01)00452-6

100. Suschke U, Geiss HK, Reichling J. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of catnip (N. cataria) and lemon balm (Melissa fficinalis) against clinical isolate from respiratory track. Planta Med., 2006; 72:027 https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-949827

101. Zenasni L, Bouidida H, Hancali A, Boudhane A, Amzal H, Idrissi AI, Aouad RE, Bakri Y, Benjouad A. The essentials oils and antimicrobial activity of four Nepeta species from Morocco. J Med Plants Res., 2008; 2:111-114.

102. Adiguzel A, Ozer H, Sokmen M, Gulluce M, Sokmen A, Kilic H, Sahin F, Baris O. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of the essential oil and methanol extract of Nepeta cataria. Pol J Microbiol., 2009; 58:69-76.

103. Edewor TI, Usman LA. Phytochemical and antibacterial activities of leaf extracts of Nepeta cataria. Afr J Pure Appl Chem., 2011; 5:50-506. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPAC11.074

104. Bandh SA, Kamili AN, Ganai BA, Lone BA, Saleem S. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of aqueous extracts of Nepeta cataria. J Pharm Res., 2011; 4:3141-3142.

105. Zomorodian K, Saharkhiz MJ, Shariati S, Pakshir K, Rahimi MJ, Khashei R. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oils fromnepeta cataria l. against common causes of food-borne infections. Int Sch Res Net., 2012; 591953. https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/591953

106. Ashrafi B, Ramak P, Ezatpour B, Talei RG. Biological activity and chemical composition of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria L. J Res Pharm., 2019; 23(2):336-343. https://doi.org/10.12991/jrp.2019.141

107. Ghosh A, Zhu EV, Wang H, Zurek L, Zhu JJ. Antibacterial activities of nepetalactones against public health-related pathogens. Nat Prod Commun., 2021; 16(3):1-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X211004875

108. Kraujalis P, Venskutonis PR, Ragazinskiene O. Antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of extracts from Nepeta plant species. Foodbalt., 2011; 79-83.

109. Mihaylova D, Georgieva L, Pavlov A. In vitro antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of Nepeta Cataria L. extracts. Int J Agric Sci Technol., 2013; 1:74-79.

110. Gokce I, Antioxidant capacity of catnip (nepeta cataria).Asian J Chem., 2010; 22(4):2833-2839.

111. Naguib AMM, Ebrahim ME , Aly HF, Metawaa HM, Mahmoud AH, Mahmoud EA, Ebrahim FM. Phytochemical screening of Nepeta cataria extracts and their in vitro inhibitory effects on free radicals and carbohydrate-metabolising enzymes. Nat Prod Res., 2012; 26: 2196-2198. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2011.635342

112. Pavaraj M, Bakavathiappan G, Baskaran S. Evaluation of some plant extracts for their nematicidal properties against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. J Biopest., 2012; 5:106-110.

113. Saeidnia S, Gohari AR, Hadjiakhoondi A. Trypanocidal activity of oil of the young leaves of N. cataria L. obtained by solvent extraction. J Med Plants. 2008; 7:54-57.

114. Bernardi MM, Kirsten TB, Salzgeber SA, Ricci EL, Romoff P, Lago JHG, Lourenço LM. Antidepressant-like effects of an apolar extract and chow enriched with Nepeta cataria (catnip) in mice. Psychol Neurosci., 2010; 3(2):251-258. https://doi.org/10.3922/j.psns.2010.2.015

115. Tan J, Qiao F. Hepatoprotective effect of essential oils of nepeta cataria l. on acetaminophen-induced liver dysfunction.Biosci Rep., 2019;39(8):BSR20190697. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20190697

116. Thomas AK, Prescott, Veitch NC, Simmonds MSJ. Direct inhibition of calcineurin by caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycosides from Teucrium chamaedrys and Nepeta cataria. J Ethnopharmacol., 2011; 137:1306-1310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.063

117. Bernardi MM, Kirstenb TB, Lago JHG, Giovani TM, Massoco CO. Nepeta cataria L. var. citriodora (Becker) increases penile erection in rats. J Ethnopharmacol., 2011; 137:1318-1322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.061

118. Gilania AH, Shah AJ, Zubair A, Khalid S, Kiani J, Ahmed A, Rasheed M, Ahmad VU. Chemical composition and mechanisms underlying the spasmolytic and bronchodilatory properties of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria L. J Ethnopharmacol., 2009; 121: 405-411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.11.004

119. Yang S, Bai M, Yang J, Yuan Y, Zhang Y, Qin J, Kuang Y, Sampietro DA. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from Peganum harmala, Nepeta cataria and Phellodendron amurense against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae), Saudi Pharma J., 2020; 28(5): 560-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2020.03.007

120. Peterson C, Coats J. Insect repellentspast, present and future. Pestic Outlook. 2001; 12:154-158. https://doi.org/10.1039/b106296b

121. Schultz G, Simbro E, Belden J, Zhu J, Coats J. Catnip, Nepeta cataria (Lamiales: Lamiaceae)-A closer look: Seasonal occurrence of nepetalactone isomers and comparative repellency of three terpenoids to insects. Environ Entomol., 2004; 33:1562-1569. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X-33.6.1562

122. Bernier UR, Furman KD, Kline DL, Allan SA, Barnard DR. Comparison of contact and spatial repellency of catnip oil (Nepetea) and N, N-diethyl-3- methylbenzamide (deet) against mosquitoes. J Med Entomol., 2005; 42:306-311. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/42.3.306

123. Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyam Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnsorn C. Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytother Res., 2005; 19:303-309. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1637

124. Zhu J, Zeng X, Ma Y. Comparisons of adult repellency and larvicidal activity of plant essential oils against mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc., 2006; 22:515-522. https://doi.org/10.2987/8756-971X(2006)22[515:ARALAO]2.0.CO;2

125. Maia MF, Moore SJ. Plant-based insect repellents: a review of their efficacy, development and testing. Malar J., 2011; 10(1):S11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S11

126. Chauhan KR, Klun JA, Debboun M, Kramer M. Feeding deterrent effects of catnip oil components compared with two synthetic amides against Aedes aegypti. J Med Entomol., 2005; 42:643-646. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/42.4.643

127. Amer A, Mehlhorn H. Persistency of larvicidal effects of plant oils under different storage conditions. Parasitol Res., 2006; 99:478-490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-006-0184-1

128. Gonzalez YI, Hallahan DL. Abstracts of papers, 233rd. ACS National Meeting, AGRO-068, Chicago, IL, United States, 2007.

129. Zhu JJ, Zeng XP, Berkebile D, Du HJ, Tong Y, Qian K. Efficacy and safety of catnip (Nepeta cataria) as a novel filth fly repellent. Med Vet Entomol., 2009; 23:209- 216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.2009.00809.x

130. Som S, Singh SK, Khatik GL, Kapoor B, Gulati M, Kuppusamy G, Anandhakrishnan NK, Kumar B, Yadav AK, Kumar R, Singh PK. Quality by design-based crystallization of curcumin using liquid antisolvent precipitation: micromeritic, biopharmaceutical, and stability aspects. Assay Drug Devel tTech., 2020;18(1):11-33. https://doi.org/10.1089/adt.2018.913

131. Kumari Y, Kaur G, Kumar R, Singh SK, Gulati M, Khursheed R, Clarisse A, Gowthamarajan K, Karri VN, Mahalingam R, Ghosh D. Gold nanoparticles: New routes across old boundaries. Advances CollInterSci., 2019; 274:102037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2019.102037

132. Porwal O, Nanjan MJ, Chandrasekar MJ, Srinivasan R, Gupta S. Anticancer potential of solanum jasminoides. Int J Pharma Sci Res., 2014; 5(9):3768.

133. Chandrasekar MJ, Srinivasan R, Porwal O, Nanjan MJ. In-vitro antioxidant activity of solanumjasminoidespaxt extracts. J Nat Remed., 2012; 12(2):115-8.

134. Singh A, Porwal O, Sharma N, Singh A, Kumar S, Sharma PK. Effects of prebiotics on git and human health: a review. J Pure Applied Microbiol., 2007; 1(1):69-82.

135. Porwal O, Gupta S, Nanjan MJ, Singh A. Classical taxonomy studies of medicinally important Ipomoea leari. Anc Sci life., 2015; 35(1):34. https://doi.org/10.4103/0257-7941.165628

136. Porwal O, Nee JL, Fuloria S. Response of hydroalcoholic extract of plumeriaalba leaves against periodontal disease triggering microbiota. Nat Volatiles Essent Oils. 2021; 14:895-901.